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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



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HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



PROFESSIONAL TREATMENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE, SUPERVISORY, 
AND SPECIFICALLY PEDAGOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE 
TO AMERICAN CONDITIONS 



EDITED BY 

CHARLES HUGHES JOHNSTON, Ph.D. (harvard) 

DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS 



NEW YORK 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
1912 



,LBiCoo7 

.3? 



Copyright, 19 12, by 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 




gCI.A309658 



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INTRODUCTION 

The American high school is our most interesting 
educational institution, more democratic than the college 
and more selective than the elementary school. Man- 
hood and womanhood are visibly budding. This fullness 
of life bewilders both the teachers and the students. Ex- 
travagant administrative and pedagogical wastes and 
misdirections cannot, however, prevent this fertile soil 
from producing educational fruitage. The high school 
as an institution enjoys, despite itself, a fair measure of 
success. With a sort of blind acceptance of mediaeval 
formulae it has stubbornly administered the same dose 
to all its students for a long time. Latin, Greek, and 
mathematics formerly killed or cured all. More recently 
the "mathematics and any foreign language" require- 
ment, "the trunk of the curriculum," has constituted a 
modern "unescapable minimum." More have braved 
this treatment, and fewer have been killed. The scien- 
tific basis for this common treatment for all has of late 
been called into question. Is a foreign language, or is 
mathematics, or is any single subject, in itself necessary 
for all types of persons and all varieties of purposes ? The 
school's process of elimination has been a rule-of-thumb 
ministration. It should be based upon intelligent diag- 
nosis and should represent more varied forms of treat- 
ment. 

There is no such thing as a high school pedagogy. It 
is time all students of secondary education should recog- 
nize that we must rather speak of high school pedagogies. 

V 



vi INTRODUCTION 

There is already a fair pedagogy of language, something 
of a distinctive mathematical method, and, since Spencer, 
some think, a science procedure. Yet new subjects and 
even new functions for old subjects call for new peda- 
gogies. Doubtless under modern high school conditions 
all our pedagogies must be remodelled. This is particu- 
larly evident in the cases of history, physics, English, 
biology, high school music, and all the so-called incom- 
ing subjects. Industrial education or agricultural educa- 
tion, for example, of a genuinely vocational character 
will bring into existence a pedagogy of school practice 
totally different from traditional text-bookish routine. 
So may modern physics and industrial chemistry, and so 
even may English. We have not discovered, again, the 
school avenue of approach to civic, or moral, or social 
enlightenment, nor are we likely to do so with traditional 
pedagogy. 

This book attempts to do some pioneering in this 
promising experimental field. The first five chapters 
seek to suggest a characteristic setting for a broader and 
more variable institutional functioning, leaving a wide- 
open development possible. The following chapters 
represent conscious attempts to differentiate the distin- 
guishable elements and pedagogical features one en- 
counters in adapting to boys and girls of high school 
age the educational possibilities inherent in our twen- 
tieth century programme of studies. All the authors 
have assumed this multiplicity of pedagogies. The editor 
does not, in every case, agree with the convictions ex- 
pressed, nor with the points chosen for greatest emphasis, 
nor can he intelligently disagree in many cases. It is 
hoped that the reader may find himself in the same 
dilemma frequently. Our urgent problem has been to 



INTRODUCTION vii 

present squarely and to define as concisely as possible 
genuine issues, and to collate educational theories of values 
viewed from intimacy of acquaintance with the further 
boundaries of the subject-matter as well as with desirable 
working high school conditions. 

We tend to put our educational theory into text-books 
on educational psychology, principles of education, 
philosophy of education, general pedagogy, or theory 
and practice of teaching, and casually to refer to the 
differentiated disciplines within courses of study them- 
selves. This book changes the emphasis and adopts 
something of the English custom or the German custom 
of reading whatever of scientific or established pedagogy 
we have definitely and specifically into the instruction 
matter we must in any case dispense. These treatments 
may in a sense be viewed as attempts at distinctions 
and co-ordinations of specific disciplines, rather than as 
moulds fashioned beforehand for a formal general dis- 
cipline, a predetermined type of educational psychology, 
or as deductions from some favorite but remotely related 
philosophical system. 

High school didactics offers then a promising field for 
investigation. Every prospective and actual teacher and 
every school administrator should have a conception of 
certain distinguishing functions of whatever subject- 
matter our high school programmes of study embrace, 
without as well as within the range of a particular branch 
of study. This book represents a co-operative attempt 
to put on record in a single usable volume an authoritative 
consensus of scholarly conviction as to what high school 
instruction may accomplish. The American high school 
is a socializing agency of our democracy also, and has 
still other aims in addition to the instructional one, which 



viii INTRODUCTION 

must be treated in a subsequent volume. But it will 
always be a distinguishing function of an educational 
institution of secondary grade to realize itself chiefly 
through the spirit and matter of what it transmits sys- 
tematically. The greatest obstacle to effective high 
school teaching is that the teachers teach mathematics 
with no clear notion why, and Latin or history or science, 
assuming likewise that in some mysterious way a result — 
not specified — will come about of itself. 

This book attempts to treat from every angle possible 
the best approaches, theoretical and practical, to the 
genuine problems of high school programmes of study 
and curriculums, and of all the special courses of study 
which a high school may hope to administer and teach. 

The contributors of the first five and the last chapters 
have had a free field within the limitations of their sub- 
ject. Beginning with Chapter VI the writers have all 
consciously followed a common scheme of treatment. 
The following topics where feasible have been in some 
way incorporated in the separate discussions, and should 
be kept in mind by the critical reader as a sort of key to 
the plan of the book, as well as to the meaning of the 
chapters. 

i. A simple statement of the broader aspects of this 
distinctive field of education, indicating the philosophi- 
cal and logical background in such a way as to broaden 
the reader's comprehension of the deeper educational 
significance of the subject. 

2. A specific adjustment of the moral, aesthetic, social, 
and practical disciplines to be reasonably expected from a 
study of this subject. 

3. A brief sketch of the actual history of the subject 
in the school curriculum. 



INTRODUCTION ix 

4. The gradual change and improvement in the text- 
book presentations of the subject. 

5. The gradual improvements in other apparatus than 
text-books, adopted for use in teaching it. 

6. The gradual change in the conception of its edu- 
cational value. 

7. The degree and nature of correlation with other 
subjects, particularly since the report of the Committee 
of Ten of the National Education Association. 

8. The growing refinement of methods for presenting 
the subject. 

9. The grade preparation to be presupposed at pres- 
ent. 

10. Its present status and the grounds for it as seen 
from a comparison of typical high school curriculums. 
The future possible developments and the grounds for 
this (growing, steady, or losing position?). 

11. The social, psychological, and practical obstacles 
to its attaining its ideal educational aim. 

12. The necessary, and also the more ideal prepara- 
tion, academic and professional, called for in the teacher. 

13. Appended bibliography, (a) additional references 
to books and special monographs dealing with the topics 
incorporated in the discussion, (b) a suggested list of 
books desirable for reference for high school libraries. 

The contributors are men invited to co-operate in this 
undertaking because of their combined interest in the 
high school point of view and in the development of the 
subject-matter of their discussions. All writers have 
constantly kept in mind the original purpose of the book, 
that the life purposes of high school students constitute 
the ultimate objects of reference — not college admission 



x INTRODUCTION 

standards, if these seem seriously to conflict with the 
broader aim. The work is intended primarily to appeal 
to all serious students of our modern high school, includ- 
ing State, county, and city superintendents, high school 
principals of all grades, and high school teachers in ser- 
vice. It may serve as a text in secondary education for 
prospective teachers in schools of education, depart- 
ments of education, and normal schools. 

The comprehensive plan of the undertaking makes 
of the volume something totally different from the com- 
mon one-man solution of all these problems. No author 
could have written any other than his own chapter, yet 
all authors accepted the conditions of uniformity in 
treatment, so that there is that measure of unity which 
expert knowledge and serious co-operation will allow. 
No reader should expect final solutions of these prob- 
lems. Such a unity for our book's conclusions would 
have been spurious. Instead the reader may here find 
honest and well-known scholars struggling to make plain 
and simple the reasons why we do or should not do these 
simple teaching operations which, without such articulate 
conviction, will deaden the greater part of our profes- 
sional service. 

The editor has found easily a place for instruction of 
classes in education in the subject-matter of this volume. 
The plan has evolved from class-room experience. Edu- 
cation departments, teachers' colleges, and many normal 
schools offer courses in "secondary education," "the 
American high school," "high school problems," "his- 
tory and principles of secondary education," or "the 
high school course of study." In such courses as these 
the doctrine described above of specialized pedagogies 
applies. The contents of this type of course well illus- 






INTRODUCTION xi 

trate the truth that college courses also call for a variety 
of pedagogies. From the editor's experience with stu- 
dents of this subject at Dartmouth College, and for three 
years and three summer terms at the University of Michi- 
gan with a large proportion of practical experienced 
school administrators in the classes, and from a similar 
experience at the University of Kansas, the following 
method of treatment is suggested where the volume is 
adopted as a text. Limit the class to twenty or twenty- 
five members. Conduct somewhat as a seminary. Spend 
the first third of the term in class discussions of the 
problems of the first five chapters. Insist upon a good 
bit of reference work, as references are abundant and 
easily accessible. Emphasize the applicability and de- 
sirability of adoption of the principles advocated to the 
particular State or States represented by the members 
of the class. Then assign, by student's choice where 
possible, the topics of the succeeding chapters. Have 
the students in the preparation of their individual reports 
follow pretty closely, but in no particular order, the 
topics suggested in this introduction. Allow each stu- 
dent one-half the hour of a class meeting to make his 
report, and then conduct the class discussion in an at- 
tempt to compare the book treatment with the independ- 
ent student's report upon the topic. Many students will 
have had some experience; many will have had a teach- 
ers' course in some subject, and all will have some pre- 
ferred subject which they expect to teach. There is 
small likelihood that root questions, new developments, 
and a wide outlook on their professional participation in 
educational service will be overlooked. Throughout one 
ideal of the course should be to have prospective high 
school teachers realize the necessity that they understand 



xii INTRODUCTION 

those high school courses of study which differ radically 
in function from their own. 

In the near future also we may expect that these ques- 
tions will occupy some of the time of our high school 
faculty meetings. High school principals will eventually 
actually administer and supervise in clear and mutual 
co-operation with their faculties these near problems of 
the actual instruction itself of the school. Some modifi- 
cation of the plan for class use suggested above will be 
found adaptable to these meetings when they become 
real meetings of educators. 

There has been a concerted and thorough-going attempt 
by the authors to make the bibliography feature of the 
book up-to-date, reliable, and useful. High school prin- 
cipals, those directing the purchase of books for high 
school libraries, those directing reading circles, and par- 
ticularly those who desire to pursue the questions raised 
by the different topics as treated, are urged to consult 
the references chapter by chapter. To insure the use- 
fulness of these select and authorized lists of books and 
monographs, prices and publishers are in most cases 
given. 

The book is dedicated to the high school teachers and 
principals of the country in whose awakening and en- 
couragement it hopes to play some part. 

Charles Hughes Johnston, Editor. 
University of Kansas. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Introduction v 

Chapter I — Current Demands upon the Pro- 
gramme of Studies . .< 3 

By Charles Hughes Johnston, Ph.D. (Harvard), Dean of the 
School of Education, University of Kansas. 

1. A modern problem. 2. Co-operative relationship of school 
and college. 3. Multiplying kinds of education and their so- 
cial significance. 4. The public interest in courses of study. 
5. Leading issues that are eventuating. 6. Typical modern crit- 
icism. 7. Wholesale curriculum experimentation. 8. Tech- 
nical curriculum problems. 9. A basis for reconstruction. 
10. The future of the American high school. 

Chapter II — The Disciplinary Basis of 

Courses of Study 31 

By Charles Hughes Johnston. 

1. Disciplinary contrasted with utilitarian basis. 2. A 
broadep conception of educational discipline. 3. Conflicting 
conceptions. 4. Sidis and James vs. Babbitt. 5. The theory 
of formal discipline. 6. Its historical status. 7. Its scien- 
tific status. 8. The teacher's concern with the theory. 

Chapter III — History of Secondary Curricu- 

LUMS SINCE THE RENAISSANCE .... 45 

By G. L. Jackson, Ph.D. (Columbia), Assistant Professor of 
the History of Education, University of Michigan. 

1. Aim of chapter. 2. Greek education. 3. Roman educa- 
tion. 4. Medieval education. 5. The Renaissance. 6. The 
sixteenth century 7. Sturn's curriculum. 8. Predominance 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

of Latin in the secondary school. 9. Secondary schools of the 
seventeenth century. 10. Reaction from the Reformation, 
Puritanism, Pietism, Jansenism. 11. Reaction results in three 
types of secondary schools, Ritter-Akademien, Real-Schule, 
Academy. 12. Study of classics urged upon psychological 
grounds. 13. Influence of Rousseau upon secondary educa- 
tion. 14. German secondary education. 15. English second- 
ary education. 16. French secondary education. 17. The 
American academy of the nineteenth century. 18. The develop- 
ment of the high school. 19. High school course of study. 
20. Relation between the high school and the college. 21. Dif- 
ferent types of high schools. 



Chapter IV — Principles and Plans for Reor- 
ganizing Secondary Education ... 67 

By Calvin Olin Davis, Ph.D. (Harvard), Assistant Professor 
of Education, University of Michigan. 

1. The irrational and wasteful methods of present-day or- 
ganization and administration historically, psychologically, and 
logically considered. 2. Recent attempts at improvement. 
3. The "bill of indictment." 4. The plexus of evils in the 
seventh and eighth grades. 5. Plans for reorganizing the sys- 
tem. 6. The six and six division. 7. The five groups of pupils 
to be considered. 8. The resulting five fundamental courses 
of study. 9. The four general plans for organizing and admin- 
istering the six-year high school. 10. Advantages of the new 
plan. 11. The six-year curriculum. 12. A suggested course of 
study. 13. Concluding arguments. 

Chapter V — Instruction: Its Organization 

and Control 106 

By Edward C. Elliott, Ph.D. (Columbia), Professor of Educa- 
tion, University of Wisconsin. 

1. The meaning and nature of control. 2. The function of 
school control. 3. The forms of external control; (a) legislative, 
(b) administrative, (c) supervisory, (d) inspectorial. 4. Three 
aims of subject-matter; the programme of studies; the cur- 
riculum; the course of study; relation of aims f o the forms of con- 
trol. 5. Plans and specifications of instruction ; the function of 



CONTENTS xv 

PAGE 

control. 6. Inspectorial control of instruction; State school sys- 
tems and higher institutions. 7. Internal control of instruction; 
relation of principals and superintendents thereto. 8. Teachers, 
their preparation and selection. 9. Material equipment for 
instruction. 10. Text-books; selection; free. n. Supervisory 
control of instruction; efficiency of instruction. 12. Pupils; 
preparation; curriculums and courses of study for; tests of 
attainment. 

Note. — Each of the following chapters treat their respective 
subjects in such a way as to furnish some information and 
many suggestions. They are primarily for teachers in service 
and for prospective teachers in normal schools, colleges, and 
educational departments of universities. The life purposes of 
high school students constitute the ultimate objects of reference 
— not college admission standards. 

Chapter VI — Mathematics 128 

By L. C. Karpinski, Ph.D. (Strassburg), Assistant Professor of 
Mathematics, University of Michigan. 

1. Historical treatment of the place of mathematics in in- 
struction. 2. The present practical bearing. 3. The natural 
appeal of mathematics. 4. Its intimate connection with many 
fields of human activity. 5. A plea for closer correlation among 
the various branches of mathematics. 6. More adequate prep- 
aration on the part of teachers, in subject matter and methods 
of presentation. 7. Suggested changes mainly along the lines 
of simplification and correlation of material now employed. 

Chapter VII — Physics 146 

By Frederick Edward Kester, Ph.D. (Cornell), Head of De- 
partment of Physics, University of Kansas. 

1. Physics, its elements of interest. 2. Its fundamental proc- 
esses. 3. Its practical and pedagogical values. 4. History of 
the physics course in the high school. 5. Some recent defini- 
tions of the proper content of the course. 6. Criticisms, pro 
and con, of these definitions. 7. Probable future of the course. 
8. The training of physics teachers. 



xvi CONTENTS 



Chapter VIII — Chemistry 183 

By J. E. Mills, Ph.D. (North Carolina), formerly Associate 
Professor of Chemistry, University of North Carolina. 

1. Should chemistry be taught in the high schools? 2. The 
past and present status of chemistry in the high schools. 

3. Difficulties in the way of successful teaching of chemistry. 

4. Suggestions as to the teaching of chemistry. 5. Suggestions 
as to the laboratory equipment. 6. Suggestions as to the 
laboratory work. 7. Time and position to be allotted to the 
course in chemistry. 8. The equipment of the teacher. 9. Text- 
books and reference books. 



Chapter IX — Biology ......... 198 

By Arthur S. Pearse, Ph.D. (Harvard), formerly Assistant 
Professor of Zoology, University of Michigan; Associate Pro- 
fessor of Biology, St. Louis University School of Medicine. 

1. Importance of biology. 2. Its history in the high schools 
of the United States. 3. Present status of biology in the high 
school. 4. Obstacles to successful teaching. 



Chapter X — Physiography 212 

By William J. Sutherland, A.M. (Wisconsin), President State 
Normal School, Platteville, Wisconsin. 

1. Physiography defined. 2. Scientific character of physiog- 
raphy. 3. New method in physiography. 4. Applied science 
in secondary schools. 5. Summary of geographical characters 
and function of physiography. 6. Practical value and social 
phase of geographical knowledge. 7. Physiographic texts, 
changes, old and new contrasted. 8. Geographical laborato- 
ries. 9. Educational value of physiography. 10. Physiogra- 
phy in curriculum; justification as pure or applied science. 

11. Introductory and correlative functions of physiography. 

12. Physiography and physical geography, distinction. 13. Theo- 
retical value of earth science. 14. A better method in physi- 
ography. 15. Need of well-prepared teachers in physiography. 
16. Physiography, promise of future. 



CONTENTS xvii 

PAGE 

Chapter XI — English 226 

By Joseph Villiers Denney, A.M. (Michigan), Dean of the 
College of Arts, Philosophy, and Science, and Professor of 
English, Ohio State University. 

1. The purpose of English study. 2. Fundamental principle 
of method. 3. The training of the imagination. 4. Ideals of 
English study. 5. Present pedagogical beliefs. 6. Text-book 
presentation of composition. 7. Teaching the English classics. 
8. The use of the class-hour. 9. Preparation of the teacher. 
10. General scheme of the English course. 11. Selection of 
reading. 

Chapter XII — Public Speaking and Voice 

Training 244 

By Dwight E. Watkins, A.M. (Michigan), Department of Pub- 
lic Speaking, Knox College. 

1. Practical value of public speaking. 2. When it should 
be taught. 3. Relation to study for the professions. 4. Rela- 
tion to civics. 5. Cultivation of leadership. 6. Oral inter- 
pretation of literature. 7. Vocal atrophy. 8. Training of the 
emotions. 9. Training of the will. 10. General improvement 
in instruction. 11. The debate. 12. The oratorical contest. 
13. The dramatic club. 14. General tendencies. 15. Lack of 
uniformity in instruction. 16. Resolutions of the Illinois Asso- 
ciation of Teachers of English. 17. Preparation of the teacher. 
18. Outlook for the future. 



Chapter XIII — Latin 257 

By Arthur Tappan Walker, Ph.D. (Chicago), Head of Latin 
Department, University of Kansas. 

1. Aims of Latin study. 2. Ability to read Latin. 3. Dis- 
ciplinary value. 4. Value for pupils' English. 5. Literary 
and historical value. 6. The course of study. 7. Report of 
commission on entrance requirements. 8. Translation at 
sight. 9. Choice of reading material. 10. Latin composition. 
11. Formal grammar study. 12. Training of the teacher. 
13. Minimum preparation. 14. Adequate preparation. 



xviii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter XIV — Modern Languages . . . .277 

By W. H. Carruth, Ph.D. (Harvard), Head of Department of 
German, University of Kansas. 

1. Time for beginning. 2. Inductive method. 3. Natural 
method. 4. Reform method. 5. Text-books. 6. Illustrative 
material. 7. Preparation of teacher. 8. Outlined courses. 



Chapter XV — History, Civil Government, and 

Political Economy 2I 

By Wayland J. Chase, A.M. (Brown), Associate Professor of 
History, University of Wisconsin. 

1. Importance of the study of history, civil government, and 
political economy. 2. The general recognition of the value 
of these studies. 3. The place of history in the high school 
curriculum. 4. Methods of teaching history. 5. Aids in the 
teaching of history. 6. Special aspects of the teaching of civil 
government. 7. Special aspects in the teaching of political 
economy. 8. The qualifications demanded of the teacher of 
history. 9. The preparation of the teacher of history. 



Chapter XVI — Drawing, Free-hand and Me- 
chanical ..... 304 

By Walter Sargent, Professor of Fine and Industrial Art in 
Relation to Education, Chicago University. 

1. Educational and industrial significance of art. 2. Value 
of mechanical drawing. 3. History of art in American schools. 
4. Educational values of free-hand drawing, of mechanical 
drawing, and of design. 5. Courses and reasonable standards 
of attainment. 6. Preparation to be expected in elementary 
schools. 7. Time and credits allowed to drawing. 8. Impor- 
tance of drawing in mechanical pursuits and in developing pub- 
lic taste. 9. The training of the teacher of drawing. 



CONTENTS xix 



Chapter XVII — Music in the High School . 317 

By Charles Hubert Farnsworth, Professor of Music, Teachers 
College, Columbia University. 

1. What music courses in high schools should be. 2. Music 
compared with other art subjects. 3. The spirit of modern 
teaching wrong. 4. How teaching of music may be improved. 
5. Estimate of aesthetics as a study. 6. Standards of music 
preparation. 7. Plan for chorus work. 8. Justification for 
sight-singing discipline. 9. Appreciation courses. 10. Plan for 
appreciation courses. Credits, n. Courses in harmony, com- 
position, and voice. 12. Musical clubs. 13. Utilization and 
recognition of private study outside of school. 14. Tempera- 
ment and training of teachers. 



Chapter XVIII — Moral Education and Train- 
ing with a Suggested Course of Study 332 

By W. B. Arbaugh, A.M. (Michigan), Superintendent of Schools, 
Ypsilanti, Michigan. 

1. Need of moral culture in the schools. 2. Importance of 
moral training in modern life. 3. Moral element in education 
needs emphasizing. 4. Some aspects of the general problem. 
5. Methods of instruction. 6. Programme of study. 



Chapter XIX — Physiology and Hygiene . . . 346 

By Charles Scott Berry, Ph.D. (Harvard), Assistant Profes- 
sor of Education, University of Michigan. 

1. Present-day interest in physical education. 2. Physiology 
and hygiene in the high school curriculum. 3. Beginning of 
movement. 4. Reasons for failure. 5. Present status of sub- 
ject. 6. Medical inspection. 7. Revival of interest in physi- 
cal education. 8. Present methods of organization. 9. Nat- 
ure course. 10. Training of teacher. 



xx CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Chapter XX — Sex Pedagogy in the High 

School 361 

By Aldred Scott Warthin, Ph.D., M.D. (Michigan), Professor 
of Pathology and Director of the Pathological Laboratories in the 
University of Michigan. 

1. Sex problem. 2. Attitude of modern society toward the 
reproductive function. 3. Failure of parents to teach their 
children the most important things of life. 4. Results of igno- 
rance concerning sexual matters as shown in the increase of the 
social evil and venereal diseases. 5. Awakening demand for 
a change of attitude. 6. American parents beginning to look 
to the schools for help. 7. Methods of attacking the sex prob- 
lem. 8. What should be taught. 9. Methods of teaching. 
10. By whom should it be taught. 11. Constructive teaching. 
12. The teaching of anatomic and physiologic facts. 13. Utili- 
zation of courses in botany and zoology. 14. Idealization of 
the sex relationships. 15. Self-abuse. 16. Chastity and health. 
17. Significance of puberty. 18. Preventive teaching. 19. Re- 
sults of sexual promiscuity. 20. Venereal diseases. 21. Com- 
mon-sense recognition of cause and effect. 22. Physical evils 
of sexual promiscuity. 23. General character of such teaching. 
24. Significance of prostitution. 25. Degenerative effects of 
unrestrained lust. 26. High school problems. 

Chapter XXI — Agriculture 381 

By C. H. Robison, Ph.D. (Columbia), State Normal School, 
Upper Montclair, N. J. 

1. Agriculture in the educational system. 2. Aims and 
methods. 3. Disciplinary values. 4. Relation to grade work. 
5. Present status. 6. College entrance. 7. Agriculture in the 
curriculum. 8. The one-year course. 9. The longer course. 
10. Its differentiation. 11. Correlation. 12. Texts. 13. Ap- 
paratus. 14. Time. 15. Teachers. 

Note. — In the chapter on agriculture an attempt has been made 
to give some idea of its growth in the high school, and to state 
some of its problems and the differing opinions regarding their 
solution. To some extent these are problems of general edu- 
cation, of science instruction, and to a large extent, of indus- 
trial and vocational education — for of course these two terms 



CONTENTS xxi 



are not synonymous. Even the very brief treatment of these 
phases has not permitted any attention to the interesting eco- 
nomic and sociological questions so intimately connected in the 
public mind with the introduction of agriculture into the curri- 
culum. 

Chapter XXII — Commercial Education . . . 396 

By Selby A. Moran, B.L. (Michigan), Teacher of Commercial 
Subjects, Ann Arbor High School, and Principal of Stenographic 
Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 

1. Introductory. 2. Aims. 3. Character and success of 
commercial education. 4. Subjects in the course. 5. Im- 
portance of stenography. 6. Text-books. 7. Office exhibits. 
8. Preliminary preparation. 9. Obstacles to be overcome. 

Chapter XXIII — Vocational Training in the 
High School, and Its Relation to Man- 
ual Training 409 

By E. C. Warriner, A.B. (Michigan), Superintendent of Schools, 
Saginaw, Michigan. 

1. Demand for vocational training. 2. Present-day tendencies. 
3. Need for vocational training. 4. Duty of the State. 5. Vo- 
cational training in the high school. 6. Practical difficulties. 
7. Co-operation between high school and factory. 8. Techni- 
cal arts high schools. 9. Three lines of tendency. 10. Result 
of vocational trend in education, n. Vocational guidance. 



Chapter XXIV — Practical Arts for Girls . 428 

By Charlotte Joy Farnsworth, A.B. (Wellesley), Preceptress 
of Teachers College, Columbia University. 

1. Theoretical and practical subjects in the high school. 
2. Need for new valuation. 3. A course of study. 4. Eco- 
nomics of clothing. 5. Planning an allowance. 6. The Study 
of textile materials. 7. How to shop to advantage. 8. House- 
hold sanitation and management. 9. Fundamental principles. 
10. Home care of sick. 11. Emergency work. 12. House fur- 
nishing. 13. Principles underlying good taste and economy. 



xxii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

14. Social relations and conduct. 15. How to increase effec- 
tiveness and pleasure when individuals meet. 16. Recreation 
and enjoyment. 17. Value of plan versus drift in our leisure 
time. 

Chapter XXV — Psychology in the High 

School Curriculum 441 

By Irving Miller, Ph.D. (Chicago), Professor of the Science 
of Education, State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colorado. 

1. Present-day interest in psychology. 2. A central science. 
3. Varied relations to life illustrated on both theoretical and 
practical sides. 4. Newer trend in psychology — its independ- 
ence of philosophy. 5. Its scientific character. 6. Biological 
and functional point of view. 7. Early recognition in secondary 
education. 8. Present status in high schools. 9. Value of 
non-professional basis, cultural, moral, and religious, in rela- 
tion to mental control. 10. Text-books and other aids to study; 
current improvements, choice of books, n. Suggestions on 
methods. 12. Future of subject in high schools. 

Chapter XXVI — The High School Library . 460 

By Theodore Koch, A.M. (Harvard), Librarian, University 
of Michigan. 

1. Importance of problem. 2. Growth of high school libra- 
ries. 3. Library work vs. teaching. 4. Difference between 
school library and public library. 5. Duties of the librarian. 
6. Assistance for the librarian. 7. Purposes of a school li- 
brary. 8. Teaching the use of the library. 9. Ignorance 
of average pupil concerning books. 10. Library instruction. 

11. Specimen questions concerning books and 'their use. 

12. Some things a teacher should know about books and libra- 
ries. 13. Library courses. 14. Value of library instruction. 

15. Importance of early acquaintance with books as tools. 

Bibliography . 471 

Appendix 533 

Index 547 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



CHAPTER I 

CURRENT DEMANDS UPON THE PROGRAMME OF 
STUDIES ' 

Charles Hughes Johnston, Ph.D. 
dean of school of education, university of kansas 

The High School Programme. — A modicum of educa- 
tional theory, half articulate, but disentangled from the 
great mass of historical tradition and social prejudice, 
doubtless functions feebly in the minds of those who 
select and organize programmes of studies for high 
schools. The needs of high schools, their relations to 
the college, the professions, and the vocations figure in- 
creasingly in this educational frameworking of the last 
decade. Technical skill, constructive professional ideals, 
and cultural and moral demands are conspicuously em- 
phasized in various types of discussions of the curriculum 
content and the social function of secondary education. 
Wide-spread and often adversely critical public concern 
in this question of the content of the course makes more 
urgent the necessity of co-operation among those who 
can effectively and comprehensively survey and take 
inventory of the available resources. The public high 
school is in a critically vital stage of its evolution. His- 
toric forces in our educational development have forced 
upon this comparatively young institution ideals remote 
from the common man. Even the most respectable of 

1 Consult chapter V for the officially adopted usage of "programme 
of studies," "curriculum," and "course of study." 

3 



4 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

its courses seem to this aroused and thoughtful public to 
represent undue and irrationally difficult peculiarities, to 
be ineffective in attainments which pass counter in the 
actual moral or industrial world, and to be bent upon en- 
forcing unattainable scholastic standards. These stand- 
ards are thought indeed to smack of intellectual luxury, 
to be narrow, stereotyped, and undemocratic. There is 
no considerable prejudice against "unescapable condi- 
tions of scholarship and intellectual living." There is, 
however, coming into vigorous existence a social con- 
science which will soon brook no dallying with the like- 
wise unescapable school functions of insuring economic 
efficiency, sounder moral integrity, and perhaps a measure 
of aesthetic development. The rise and fall of the curve 
which indicates graphically the popularity and predomi- 
nance of certain high school studies correlates too closely 
with changing college admission requirements for us to 
point historically to any healthy, self-orienting character- 
istics within the high school organizations themselves. 
This is past history, however. The high school will 
henceforth make history. It is clambering to its feet. 
Its leaders are organizing the resources for combined or 
at least co-operative attack upon the varied community 
issues. The multiplicity and complexity of the problems 
furnish a magnificent, urgent, and inspiriting challenge. 
Co-operation between High School and College. — It is 
said that the typical college man preserves history and 
tradition; that the typical school man makes history and 
tradition; and that their sympathies as well as their func- 
tions are diverse and antagonistic. This has apparently 
been so; it is not so now. Because of a great social 
pressure we all note the growing spirit of co-operation 
between the schools and the colleges — a new brotherhood 



CURRENT DEMANDS 5 

of educational workers. "Time was when the college 
was a kind of Olympus and the public school a lower 
region. Once each college went on its own way without 
consultation with school authorities and without regard 
to school conditions, but the continual advance in schol- 
arship and in professional insight among public-school 
teachers has wrought a change of attitude." ' Now very 
many of our secondary teachers are scholars and have 
done a considerable amount of graduate work. There is 
no longer a great gulf fixed between the college and the 
high school. This growth into a closer, more cordial re- 
lationship enables us to say that the school and the college 
are directing different parts of the same process. It en- 
ables President Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation, to 
say that the policyof higher educational institutions is now 
marked by two important facts: (i) Freedom for the 
school in the choice of studies and methods, so that it may 
make its work adaptable to all who resort to it, most of 
whom do not enter college; (2) insistence by the college 
that the student in the school attain an adequate intellect- 
ual training irrespective of the detailsof how it maybe pro- 
cured. In short, we may look forward to the day when 
the school shall have gained such efficiency and strength 
that it can stand alone in its curriculum making and not 
have to swim with the cork of supervision and college 
examination. This will mark the establishment of an 
honor system between schools and colleges, and is clearly 
foreshadowed in the most recent modifications of college 
admission requirements by even Harvard, the University 
of Chicago, and the University of Pennsylvania. 

Social Conditions Change the Programme of Studies. — 
The most delicate, yet the most urgent and most difficult 

1 This from the dean of one of our universities. 



6 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

task before schoolmen to-day is this: How effect the 
necessary changes in the material of instruction, the pro- 
gramme of studies, without too much harmful disorgani- 
zation and confusion. I introduce my discussion as I 
have to suggest at the outset that this problem will have 
to be worked out by high school leaders on the ground, 
not without agonizing thought and most likely some costly 
experimentation. Such discussions as this book contains 
will offer some constructive conceptions and will aid in 
stating leading issues. The actual national, State, city, 
and local systems must always be the testing crucibles 
in the evolution of a workable plan. 

Let us attempt to define the social condition for which 
we must modify or enlarge our programme of studies 
and our high school ideal. 

Education means something it has never meant before. 
We have only to enumerate the kinds of education that 
society calls into existence if we wish to face concrete 
issues. In this way we may anticipate some of the adap- 
tations to which the future high school must conform. 
Kinds of semi-private educational institutions exist for 
almost every profession, religious belief, or social tenet. 
No one has had the temerity to suggest a classification 
nor to analyze the vague social consciousness which calls 
them into existence. Research, religious, ethical, com- 
mercial, industrial, vocational, supervisional, reforma- 
tory, cultural, disciplinary, avowedly professional, purely 
charitable, propagandish — and freakish types may be 
partially characteristic of many phases of concrete mental 
activity called, nowadays, educational. All these social 
experiments have their effect upon prevailing educational 
opinion. En masse they constitute our educational era. 
Whatever of permanence attaches to these spontaneous 



CURRENT DEMANDS 7 

Teachings for things educational we must eventually in- 
corporate in some type of public secondary school insti- 
tution. 

Variety of Existing Educational Institutions and Ac- 
tivities. — The extension of university privileges at all times 
to teachers of both sexes at the Universities of London, 
Harvard, Pennsylvania, Cincinnati, etc., the National 
University (suggested), numerous new institutions for 
research, evening Y. M. C. A. universities, international 
congresses, national exchanges of professors and middle 
school teachers, parents' co-operative associations, an 
international academy as an authority on language re- 
form (suggested), exclusive Catholic and Jewish schools, 
national and State schools for grown immigrants, schools 
for health instruction of soldiers (England), State schools 
for veterinary surgery (suggested), Farmers' Experi- 
mental College on Wheels (Booker Washington), army 
cooking schools, special schools for ophthalmology, otol- 
ogy, rhinology, laryngology, etc. (suggested in lieu of 
recent organized agitation for adequate medical super- 
vision of school children), constitute an arbitrary choice 
from our long list. Extending further the connotation 
of education, and enormously increasing our perplexity, 
we may note many less comprehensive phases, some 
genuine, some abortive, all characteristic of our age and 
exigencies of our growth. We note, further, schools for 
religious pedagogy, schools for deaconesses, the great 
evening trade-schools of Boston, New York, Chicago, and 
Philadelphia, Southern industrial schools for negroes, 
evening high schools, agricultural high schools, high 
schools of commerce, manual training schools, Lyman 
and other city reform schools, the George Junior Re- 
public, the Rand and other schools of social science, 



8 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

schools for socialism, breadwinners' colleges, home schools 
for Jewish girls, truant schools for girls, schools for incor- 
rigible boys, schools for crippled and deformed children, 
schools for old people, schools for training in prevalent 
ailments of low humanity (Washington Booth's sugges- 
tion), the Department of Humanity in Columbia Uni- 
versity, and even schools for anarchy. And if this be not 
enough, our list runs on freely with various struggling 
attempts at vocational schools for journalists, for libra- 
rians, for salesmen and saleswomen, for judges (Paris), 
for cash-boys, for nurse-maids (London), for policemen 
(Russia), for grave-diggers (Belgium), for housewifery 
(England), for prospective wives and husbands (sug- 
gested), for washerwomen, and even for chimney-sweeps 
(Prussia), for croupiers (Monte Carlo), and for aeronauts 
(Boston). By continuing such a survey we may get an 
appalling picture of actuality, a semi-civilized situation 
replete with suggestions, whose ultimate resume will be 
impossible until philosophy is as broad as life, and until 
educational endeavors can more successfully cope with 
genuine social imperfections. One great philosopher has 
said that confusion, tantalizing and agonizing very often, 
is the price we pay for subsequent charity. The pan- 
sophic ideals of Luther, or Bacon, or Comenius, will not 
avail us here. What Education is I am not rash enough 
to say. That the term connotes more than it has con- 
noted for any other age is assuredly evident. Neither 
Plato, nor Quintilian, nor Locke, nor Spencer, nor even 
Rousseau, faced, much less solved, our present-day prob- 
lems. Their simple naive devices and absolute dicta 
were meant for an earlier time and a simpler civilization. 
Industrial Training. — Of the problems pressing upon 
schoolmen in actual service, the one of industrial train- 



CURRENT DEMANDS 9 

ing is typical and urgent. The list of the vocational 
schools in the city of Munich will sufficiently emphasize 
the probable complexity of our educational future in this 
respect. This one city assumes responsibility for its 
citizens by directing forty-two vocational schools with 
organized courses of study bearing upon the trades in 
question. These are schools for butchers, bakers, shoe- 
makers, barbers, wood turners, glaziers, gardeners, con- 
fectioners, wagon makers, blacksmiths, tailors, photog- 
raphers, interior decorators, hotel and restaurant waiters, 
coachmen, painters, bookbinders, paper hangers, potters 
and stove setters, watch-makers, clock-makers, jewellers, 
goldsmiths and silversmiths, founders, pewterers, copper- 
smiths, stucco workers and marble workers, wood car- 
vers, coopers, saddlers and leather workers, business ap- 
prentices, printers and typesetters, lithographers and 
engravers, building iron and ornamental iron workers, 
machine makers, mechanics, cabinet-makers, masons and 
stone cutters, and carpenters. All these courses of study 
were forced into existence in this city between the years 
1900 and 1905. 

A supplementary list of novel ideas as regards the 
course of study are the following: A course in the hu- 
mane treatment of animals required by law in Illinois, 
School of Peace (Boston), consular schools of commerce 
and administration (Chicago), Cantonal Commercial 
School (Zurich), schools for railroad men with elab- 
orate curriculum (P. R., R. etc.), schools for mine 
workers (Lost Creek), department of Life-saving (Colum- 
bia University), department of Horsemanship (Norwich 
University), schools for real estate dealers (Y. M. C. A. 
University, Boston), European hotel schools, School for 
Household Arts (Barnard), Wifehood Guild (Long Isl- 



10 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and), travelling cooking schools (Germany), schools for 
"Intellectual Elite" (this principle is in operation in 
one large city), Bureau of Hygiene (to teach mothers in- 
fantile diseases, etc.), schools for "wet" voters in St. 
Louis to instruct in use of ballot, the Caroline Rest 
for mothers (course in the care of babies, Chicago), 
elective course in care of babies (Missouri), schools for 
tubercular children, cigar schools (Belgium), schools 
for coast defence (Virginia), school hygiene clinics for 
the study of typical ailments of school children (Scot- 
land), trade hygienic institutes for workmen in typical 
ailments of occupations (Germany), schools for deport- 
ment, telephone sweet-voice schools (Los Angeles), courses 
in railroad problems (University of Illinois — proposed), 
City Fire College (New York), high school course in 
"Civic and Industrial Chicago" (Chicago), schools for 
waiters (three in London), School for Women Police 
(Kansas City), and School for Municipal Administration 
(Columbia University — proposed). 

This list is suggestive, but not complete. We have 
ninety-seven distinctive fields into which educators are 
driven by the public to enter. One hundred and thirty- 
seven courses are mostly concerned with processes which 
we have not heretofore thought of as educational. It 
all seems to mean that we have rapidly democratized edu- 
cation. It seems to mean that wherever the torch-light 
of education does not yet shine, we are going to hear the 
" voice in the wilderness crying." Indeed it is natural for 
us to suppose that our list of public school failures will 
greatly increase just because we have educated the public 
up to the point of demanding more. If Hale claims it 
does not insure morality; Eliot that it is not worth the 
money spent; Admiral Evans that its individual results 



CURRENT DEMANDS 11 

are contemptible; Fiske that it is useless for business; 
Edison that it is useless in the world of applied sciences; 
A. C. Benson and Frederick Harrison that it is a ma- 
chine for destroying individual leadership; Rabbi Hirsch 
that it is a typical failure as a twentieth century institu- 
tion, we can reply that these criticisms are a natural 
outcome and an encouraging symptom. Some day the 
ideal of the public school will evolve. 1 

Public Support for Real Needs. — The public is willing 
to support what the public very clearly needs. Industrial 
items, utility items, including agricultural, are most 
clearly seen. Sociological necessities, in the broad sense 
of making a more efficient voting class, are next in order. 
Biological motives and principles in the modern hygienic 
sense, the art of sanitary observance, preventive medicine, 
and increase of physical effectiveness, come next. Then 
there is a drop to those we may call religious items in a 
non-sectarian sense; and then to those psychological in 
the sense of the necessity that the school shall understand 
and observe the individual types under its direction. 
Then, whatever the ideal order maybe, comes the aesthetic, 
in the sense of equipment for life's leisure hours; the 
luxury side of education. Lastly in popular importance 
comes the administrative in the sense of economical 
business methods, a lack of waste and friction in school 
machinery, an understanding of retardation and promo- 
tion, and the very great problems of equitable and per- 
manent principles of taxation. This is doubtless a fair 
index of our social, or as many call it, our democratic 
consciousness. Vaguely as yet are our school workers 
sensing these many voices. Slowly are school move- 

1 This list has been adapted from an article by the writer which ap- 
peared in the Educational Review, February, 1909, pp. 160-180. 



12 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ments just now squaring themselves with all these real 
issues. Society, which supports our public system of 
schools creates its demands as it feels them; industrial 
efficiency, twentieth century morality, and a health con- 
science with regard to one's self and one's neighbors, the 
demand for beauty in one's own environment; these are 
the things it desires at present. How conceive our pro- 
gramme of studies and how remodel our curriculums that 
the changes called for may make for permanent and not 
abortive development ? 

The Issues before the Schools. — It is clear that certain 
great issues stand out for those who organize our school 
courses of study. They are these : How choose and ar- 
range courses that the curriculums will best minister to 
all pressing industrial and life needs of the pupils, includ- 
ing agricultural demands as well as all other manual oc- 
cupations? Again, how make a programme of studies 
affect more directly the national observance of hygienic 
living? How make healthful living fashionable ? Again, 
how make what we deal out in our courses of study more 
clearly bring into favor a moral standard which will 
guide us in the genuine perplexities of right acting under 
twentieth century sociological conditions? Next — not 
yet an issue for most of us except in a narrow personal 
way — how shall our courses affect the individual and 
the public taste; how make art a necessity of life? 
Again, how conceive our courses and plan them that 
we can adapt educational material so that we may 
detect, direct, and preserve the individual differences in 
our own students ? Lastly perhaps, how can we arrange 
our accidental division of eight-year elementary and 
four-year high school programme into the equal six- 
year division? 



CURRENT DEMANDS 13 

Planning a Course of Study. — The planning of a course 
of study is not entirely, not chiefly indeed, a technical, 
mechanical, administrative issue. It is easy to apply 
exact treatment and method to physical machinery, chem- 
ical elements of soils, timber supply, water power, dynamo 
functions, or to labor supply, but students, school ma- 
terial, demand much more than this quantitative and 
lumped sort of treatment. We have studied and to a 
certain extent mastered the administrative machinery 
and have clearly named some of its problems. Now we 
should study intensively the functions of curriculums 
themselves. So much merely to say that our task is a 
reorganization of the programme of studies. Inevitably 
then we should consider (i) these programmes of studies 
historically; (2) the modern criticism directed against our 
present one; (3) fundamental ideals which influence its 
development; and (4) certain constructive suggestions 
which bear promise. These in detail are to be found in 
the chapters which follow. 

Development of the Curriculum. — At first the American 
school is a slavish imitation of European models. Like 
those of England and Scotland, it represents only provin- 
cial issues. Later our schools adapt themselves in be- 
wilderment to a split society, and vaguely enlarge the 
curriculum. The grammar schools overlap private acad- 
emies. After the Revolution democracy makes univer- 
sities for the people. Borne in on the same wave comes 
the elementary school. In the first quarter of the nine- 
teenth century the American high school appears. These 
movements are hesitating attempts to knit rich and poor 
in democratic unity, rather than, by anticipating society's 
differentiations, to equip each for his probable needs. 
All this was in part French Revolutionary sentiment 



14 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

rather than common sense. This administrative treat- 
ment resulted in the ladder logic, all marching toward 
the university apex. In fifty years States take control of 
these movements. With the school system on its feet 
administratively, we next note the throes of internal 
organization, external articulation, and unmanageable 
curriculums. Blind alleys, waste and lack of universal 
appeal produce slogans for reform. At this point his- 
torically the single curriculum is superficial and artificial. 
State universities (Michigan for example) were on foun- 
dations which enabled them to pattern after German uni- 
versities and institutions like Harvard. Naturally at first 
what directions the schools did get were largely in the 
nature of superimposed tasks. This sort of guidance, 
good in part, and all of any sort at command, could not 
prevent the resultant artificiality in many of the courses 
of study. Colleges then became lenient and the accredit- 
ing system of the Middle West relieved the pressure in 
the high school, but added a grade and promotion ma- 
chinery to the elementary schools. Popularized science 
and vaguely conceived humanitarian studies confused 
still more the bewildered curriculum makers. Then 
later the attempt to give every subject social significance, 
as Dewey preached, added naturally to the confusion. 
Indeed, throughout the history of the programme of 
studies even good suggestions have proved disorganizing 
and costly. Like "growing pains," however, they are 
symptomatic of progress. 

At present we are hearing on all sides from the propo- 
nents of vocational education. At recent State teachers' 
associations it appears, from the agricultural culture 
urged, that we are all immediately destined to return in- 
telligently to the soil. M. E. Sadler and his thirty col- 



CURRENT DEMANDS 15 

laborators, after an elaborate world survey, 1 prophesy a 
complete reorganization of the years of public school life, 
and the incorporation of direct moral education in the 
secondary curriculum. E. S. Draper, of New York State, 
has already instituted far-reaching reformations in specific 
directions. Massachusetts disturbs at present only the 
high school organization and the upper grammar grades. 

Criticism of Modern Public School Education. — De- 
structive critics see moral perverseness and intellectual 
obtuseness underneath the whole reconstructive modern 
movement. Constructive critics see it all as a vital fact, 
an exigency in a nation's quick growth, an inevitable stage 
of possible development. The process is not idealized, 
nor is it conscious of itself from within. The secondary 
school, though we boast of it as a democratic institution, 
has not the first mark of such. It is not self-orienting. 
With so many perspectives, none are compelling. All 
suggested clews are somewhere followed up regardless of 
their source. But there is little conservation of good or 
bad experiments, of educational experience; no secure 
and confident attitude toward criticism and advice; no 
unswerving devotion to an articulate educational ideal 
similar to the moving conceptions which lie at the basis, 
for example, of Plato's " Republic." 

The colleges and universities have had no time to study 
the problems, and the merely formal method of training 
polishes the superficiality. As David Snedden observes,! 
historically the chief function of the American college, 
so far as practical occupations are concerned, has been 
the preparation of teachers. More of its graduates have 
gone into this than into any other field, yet until recently 
it could be said that the colleges refused to recognize that 

1 " Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere." 



16 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

teaching in the high schools was a profession in spite of 
the fact that its graduates in such numbers were making 
a career of it. The public has been obliged to accept 
this opinion only to find their preparation incomplete and 
their first years of apprenticeship in many cases wasteful. 
This is a part of the unsatisfactory history of the develop- 
ment of the curriculums. It is now all past. An histori- 
cal survey shows that one is less and less likely to see any 
college trying to dictate secondary programmes of studies. 
Indeed history shows that our curriculum makers are 
driven more and more to look to local clews, retaining as 
anchorage a few fundamental but simple educational 
principles, and a sound appreciation of elementary life 
problems. 

Signs of Improvement in Our Educational System. — We 
should hence turn to the instructional and more scientific 
field where we may see certain constructive conceptions 
and ideals which bid fair soon to be incorporated in our 
educational system. Certain big ideals are slowly be- 
coming articulate for us, upon which our curriculums 
and courses will ultimately rest. The simplified princi- 
ples of hygienic and sanitary enlightenment and prevent- 
ive medicine, inculcated with strong aspirations to acquire 
! the goal of physical uprightness, will probably furnish 
material for a continuous graded course of study through- 
out the elementary and high school, which will aim not 
at an initiation into the technical sciences, but, with the 
help of the gymnasium and athletic field as laboratories, 
at furnishing the reliant basis and impetus for the art of 
living. Outside pressure is forcing this upon the school. 
A physical conscience must be and will be simply but 
persistently developed. Again, the incipient stages of 
the aesthetic experience, the natural and unrestricted 



CURRENT DEMANDS 17 

approach to the beautiful, will soon cease to be the de- 
tached and exclusive privilege of those only who can 
defy school standards. Teachers, however, in order to 
conserve such mental characteristics, must live in the 
world of the beautiful themselves. This art principle in 
school work must establish itself pedagogically and uni- 
versally. Hundreds of isolated experiments prove the 
desirability and the practicability of this step also. It 
will come when higher institutions can inculcate the art 
spirit in embryo teachers, and when teaching itself is en- 
tered upon as a noble art and not as a job — and when 
we can see more nearly equalized the conditions for 
teaching all along the line. With this, and because off 
this, a simpler, clearer, and less ambitious intellectual 
attainment, carefully and without haste, will be under- 
taken with more dignified composure. With this cur- 
tailing of costly luxuries, and extravagant exploitation in 
our curriculum, it will come about naturally that emphasis 
upon the bizarre occurrences of the recitation period will 
weaken, and will be replaced by the much desired empha- 
sis upon protracted, unswerving, and delicately skilful 
direction in the automatization of those fundamental 
activities, relatively few in number, which stand one in 
stead in either cultural or vocational crises. Bagley has 
recently shown x clearly that secondary intellectual train- 
ing too often stops short of the point where self-mastery 
of the finer acquisitions in any specific disciplines may be 
accomplished. The motivation, the worth-whileness of 
the effort to attain fine capacity through intellectual dis- 
ciplines, is lacking. The reason for this resides in the 
condition. There is a confusion and a vagueness in the 
high school incentives to this conscious effortful mastery 

l Cf. School Review, February, 1911. 



IS HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of a process. Success here also involves and implies the 
practice in and the anticipation during the school period 
of civic and personal virtues, moral training, if not for a 
time direct moral instruction. Such bases will both 
shorten and enrich the programme of studies, make for 
professional pride and loyalty in teachers, and recognize 
the in loco parentis function of the school, which also 
seems just now to be its unavoidable duty. 

Analysis of Aims and Individual Differences Urgent. — 
The high school teacher must know more intimately and 
appreciate more critically his or her charges who are 
going through vital physical, mental, and spiritual changes 
which make or mar, tone up or discolor, sweeten or embit- 
ter their whole after lives. The uncontrollable, inarticu- 
late, but ceaselessly active undercurrent of passion and 
latent power is there — critical for the educator. Not only 
sanity, kindliness, and justice, but studied insight into the 
meaning and critical importance of these vital changes 
must be at command. For one cannot any longer retain 
self-respect if he accepts his teaching work as merely the 
imparting of information. He is more and more insist- 
ently challenged to make men and women and to study 
continually the intricate complexities of those processes 
he by virtue of his position must direct and refine. School 
administrators and all teachers in the ranks must formu- 
late more concisely, then carry out, a clean-cut policy with 
reference to the genuine and concrete issue suggested 
above. 

Lack of Agreement among Educators. — For example, 
the writer, in order to compare professional opinion as 
to how to introduce hygienic instruction, sanitation, and 
preventive medicine into high schools, devised a ques- 
tionnaire which suggested these four possible solutions: 



CURRENT DEMANDS 19 

"Would you have this work given (a) independently in 
systematic short courses, or (6) in connection with biol- 
ogy and physiology, or (c) in an independent course in 
morals, which course would include laws and duties of 
health, of sex, physical and moral purity, and also the 
principles of honor, manners, patriotism, social responsi- 
bilities, justice, etc., or (d) would you have it left to some 
other agency ?" In all likelihood the four ways suggested, 
which seem to be about equally favored, since no one 
knows, will each be pretty fully exploited before the 
general adoption permanently of any one of them. The 
great numbers of answers from supposedly educational 
experts illustrated by their diversity our inability to settle 
off-hand a single curriculum modification. As with the 
history of the introduction of any other school subject, 
costly experimentation is necessary, although we should 
try to foreshorten the process. 

Need for Careful Experiment. — There was about the 
same division of opinion in London (1907) at the Inter- 
national Congress on Moral Education. Some believe 
we must teach morals directly in courses; others believe 
it is best to do so indirectly. Some wish to connect morals 
with special religious teaching; others wish to keep the 
two entirely distinct. The problem of moral education 
in the schools will be solved when we have local experi- 
ments by schools furnishing data derived from experience 
with definite and clearly conceived practices which differ. 
So it will be with our art courses in the school — courses 
which are not natural to our curriculum thinking as yet. 
The ideal art instruction may find itself in some manual 
training connection, or as a great many others are think- 
ing now, through some introduction to art in elementary 
courses in the fine arts. Our experimentation and tab- 



20 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ulated results will decide the issue. Again, industrial 
courses are being specifically exploited in Massachu- 
setts, where history is being made. This should save 
us the same costly experimentation. In Illinois, agricult- 
ural education is having a free field. We have here 
but to observe mistakes to avoid them and effective 
policies to adopt them. It is pretty likely that Berke- 
ley, California, for example, can give us data with re- 
gard to the wisdom of six-year divisions of the elemen- 
tary and high school. 

In short, ours is an educational era of adaptation to 
local demands and genuine needs, and to the community 
appeal; and of assumption as to the ability and inclina- 
tion of the community to appreciate. The consequent 
confusion, disorganization, and dissatisfaction are a nat- 
ural outcome, but not a permanent condition of our 
present stage of development. 

Model Schools. — We have existing, partly for this ex- 
perimental purpose, model schools now in different parts 
of the world which take a radical stand in order to develop 
some new feature or type of curriculum. These have 
been in some disfavor with practical schoolmen because 
they cannot be copied. This is not their purpose. The 
Rein School at Jena has saved time for thousands of 
schools by fully exploiting refined Herbartian methods. 
The J. J. Findlay Demonstration School at Manchester 
is doing the same thing in the modern languages in the 
elementary grades, as well as in other untested school 
branches. The model school of the Hyannis Normal 
School is carrying to the extreme the idea of reproducing 
a miniature democracy in the school society. The Mas- 
sachusetts industrial schools in certain towns, through 
their curriculums, are working out for us the practical 



CURRENT DEMANDS 21 

problem of adapting all institutions to local needs and 
specific trade demands. In no other way could we see 
the fruits of such a policy. The Ethical Culture School 
in New York City, and the Summer School for Moral 
Education in Madison, Wisconsin, are also virtually dem- 
onstration schools. Samples of work under favorable 
conditions must be done to test the method of direct moral 
instruction. The Practice School of the University of 
Missouri, directed by J. L. Merriam, is an institution 
which superintendents in Missouri do not find themselves 
able to duplicate. This school serves other purposes. In 
the April, 1909, issue of the Educational Review Merriam 
outlines a programme of studies which has fascinating pos- 
sibilities and the spirit of which I feel sure we should like 
to duplicate in many particulars, and yet I doubt whether 
our communities could accustom themselves to support- 
ing schools of the Merriam type yet. His programme of 
studies is as follows: First three years, playing wholesome 
games, discovering interesting and profitable things, and 
making useful and ornamental things; fourth year, local 
industries, post-office, laundry, grocery, dairy, etc.; fifth 
and sixth years, industries at large, as lumbering, mining, 
governing, etc. ; and the seventh year, important United 
States industries. This is not an industrial school, but 
an elementary school with a vocational flavor; a school 
where real child motive gets free play and where large 
tasks are almost unconsciously done, and where the 
curriculum is not a patchwork of studies. I refer to 
Merriam's elementary school because it is a good sample 
of what is meant by experimenting with a programme of 
studies in a scientific way. 

Suggestions for Reform in the Curriculum. — These re- 
forms described above are practically suggestions for a 



22 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

complete change of front in curriculum-making. Public 
school machinery and public school forces are too un- 
wieldy, however, to accomplish any such right-about- 
face. There are less radical proposals which embody 
practical reforms of our present practice, particularly 
those aimed at high school reorganization. The Massa- 
chusetts Commission on Industrial Education furnishes 
samples of such modifications which have been adopted 
at Fitchburg, Lynn, and Waltham. Draper, of New 
York, has published his proposed changes for the ele- 
mentary work throughout the State. There is a Na- 
tional Education Association committee at work upon 
the six-year elementary and high school division. In the 
School Review for March, 1909, one finds in an article by 
Charles De Garmo, of Cornell, clear-cut suggestions for 
junior industrial high schools. Many other administrative 
schemes for special curriculums are interesting and provo- 
cative of speculation. But even these ingenious policies 
are partly blundering guesses, not expressions of settled 
conviction nor products of actual experience. The real 
approach to the curriculum problems for our future 
teachers must be the scholarly one. They should under- 
stand and have in mind samples of historical courses of 
study and curriculums. They should be able to appre- 
ciate the social bases upon which these have rested. 
They should consult various types of model curriculums. 
Furthermore, they should be able to articulate for them- 
selves the modern bases upon which any course must rest, 
particularly their own. From this they will be driven to 
a consideration of the inter-relation of the various sub- 
jects in the programme. Again, no high school teacher 
can be fully proficient without definite relations to his 
colleagues. Most inexperienced high school teachers at- 



CURRENT DEMANDS 23 

tempt to do their work with reference only to their inter- 
ests in a detached branch of study. Instead they should 
be conscious professional co-operators in the administra- 
tion of the whole curriculum. There is every reason why 
the history teacher, the language teacher, the mathematics 
teacher, and the science teacher should make specific 
efforts to articulate the distinctive but mutually depend- 
ent functions they are each to perform in the educative 
process. Here professional distinctiveness and pride will 
produce efficient co-operation and insure a measure of 
relatedness hitherto not brought into the service for unity 
of aim in secondary teaching. 

The Variety of Curriculum Problems. — Typical per- 
plexities of the curriculum are easily discovered. One 
quickly finds certain clear-cut issues prominent. An ex- 
amination of the model outlines for the high school pro- 
grammes of studies for the States of Illinois and Michigan 
and for the cities of New York and Boston reveals the 
following interesting educational situation: The elective 
system is a baffling problem everywhere. None have 
worked it out. The five-period-per-week problem is dif- 
ferently solved by each of these educational bodies of 
experts. The problem of adapting the course to the sex 
demands is only partly met. The problem of foreign 
languages, ancient and modern, is differently solved. 
Michigan and Illinois both are more conservative in the 
matter of ancient languages. Boston and New York are 
making no distinction between a foreign and an ancient 
language. An observant critic will note further that the 
material for English courses differs in required content 
throughout. He will note that grammar in these four 
pamphlet directions appears in each year of the high 
school in turn with no apparent reason in any case. 



24 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Mathematics is required throughout and appears to offer 
a point of general agreement, although there are different 
theories as to its purpose, method, extent, discipline, text- 
books, and as to whether it shall be chiefly applied or 
pure. Differences multiply as we leave the field of exact 
science. One will have raised in this examination also 
the question as to whether geography should be a com- 
mercial or a physical subject. Of the science of the 
curriculum, there is no general agreement as to how we 
shall sequentially relate botany, zoology, general biology, 
physiology, and hygiene, or as to the order in which we 
shall give chemistry, physics, and physiography. Draw- 
ing seems to be an extra, not worth college credit in some 
cases, and not rigid, nor difficult, nor systematic. In the 
foreign languages three years as a rule seem to be expected 
with wide election provided for college admission. Vocal 
music is an extra; instrumental music is a school subject 
that has a questionable status; Illinois suggests agricult- 
ure throughout; it appears in the programme of an in- 
creasing number of schools and there is a propaganda in 
Michigan, in Kansas, and other States to adopt this as a 
State policy. Commercial training appears throughout; 
domestic training seems to be, for the girls, a substitute 
for mathematics and physics. Civics, economics, and 
American history are agreed upon as last year subjects. 
As to how to conduct the history throughout the high 
school, there is little consensus in these four schemes. 
History, if judged by required schedule hours, is rela- 
tively little stressed in New York. These are conclusions 
from a mere statistical analysis of four suggestive pro- 
grammes. If we should take a German programme we 
should add the subject of religion; if we should take a 
French programme we should find a course in morals 



CURRENT DEMANDS 25 

with religion debarred. In either we should note more 
required hours and less elective, we should note more of 
the classical flavor to the curriculum, and we should see 
a different division of years for high school work. 

The Basis for a Reconstruction of the Curriculum. — 
In short, schoolmen are driven to a thorough-going re- 
construction and reclassification of our standards for 
educational values and correlations. I quote the follow- 
ing from Professor William Macdonald: 1 "I cannot but 
think that the public high school has to-day legitimate 
ground of complaint against the college, especially in the 
Eastern part of the United States. Broadly speaking, 
our college entrance requirements are both too high and 
too narrow. In the attempt to protect Greek, for ex- 
ample, high school Latin has been sometimes under- 
valued, especially where a scheme of 'units' obtains. 
French and German have been arbitrarily reckoned as 
of less worth than the classics, and the whole scheme of 
entrance requirements has been overweighed with lan- 
guage. The alternatives for Greek or Latin have some- 
times been less, and often more, difficult to offer than the 
language itself; while work in physics and chemistry, 
though done in school laboratories as good as those of 
many colleges, and under teachers of sound university 
training, has been accepted for admission only to be re- 
jected after admission. The entrance history require- 
ment seems to me to be, for the majority of schools, much 
too difficult, except under peculiarly favorable condi- 
tions. 

"On the other hand, Eastern colleges have been very 
slow to accept, and for the most part have declined alto- 

1 Educational Review, January, 191 1, "The Interest of the Public in 
the College Curriculum-." 



26 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

gether to accept, a number of subjects which legitimate 
public demand has introduced into many high schools, 
and which I am constrained to believe are as well taught 
as other subjects of the curriculum. Such subjects as 
physical and commercial geography, industrial history, 
modern European history, American civil government, 
household chemistry, and manual and industrial training 
are not generally accepted as entrance subjects; or, if 
they are, are commonly taken at a 'unit' value less than 
they actually stand for in the work of the student. They 
are not, in other words, quite respectable. 

"Unquestionably, there are disparities and maladjust- 
ments here that ought not to be continued. The widen- 
ing range of high school studies, due to the public de- 
mand that tax-supported schools shall give adequate prep- 
aration for life, together with the increasing dependence 
of the college upon the high school, rather than upon 
private schools, for its students, makes imperative a 
broader basis of admission to college, if a gulf between the 
two classes of institutions is not to become fixed. Not, 
let me repeat, that the college must accept everything 
done in a high school as a suitable preparation for col- 
lege, or that every high school course is to be accepted by 
the college irrespective of its content. I do not myself 
see how the college can ever regard dressmaking, cook- 
ing, stenography, typewriting, book-keeping, or sight- 
singing as substantive elements in college preparation, 
on which later cultural courses can be built; or how it 
can surrender to the schools the function of determining 
what the entrance requirements shall be. The demand 
that any high school course anywhere shall admit to any 
college course anywhere seems to me preposterous, both 
practically and educationally. But we must certainly 



CURRENT DEMANDS 27 

broaden the road a good deal if the school and college 
are to continue, shoulder to shoulder, to do the educa- 
tional work of the country; and we need not fear lest a 
broad road lead us to destruction. 

"To be specific: I am disposed to think that the col- 
leges generally must make up their minds, as some have 
already done, to insist upon but one foreign language, 
ancient or modern, instead of two or three, for admission; 
provided always that the language offered has been 
taught long enough and well enough to insure on the part 
of the student real mastery of it, real ability to use it. 
Again, the college must bring itself to abandon a protec- 
tive tariff on traditional subjects, whether Greek or any 
other, and cease to display 'alternatives' which are not 
at least time equivalents. It ought to increase the 'unit' 
value of history, or else decrease the period to be covered; 
and it certainly ought to make room for industrial his- 
tory and the history of modern Europe. It cannot con- 
tinue to discount the high school work in science, when 
courses cover the same ground and are done under as 
satisfactory conditions as corresponding courses in col- 
lege. And it must accept sound, well-ordered, and well- 
taught courses in geography, American government, in- 
dustrial training, and other equally worthy subjects. 
The adoption of all these changes would in no way 
jeopardize the scholarship of the college, or deprive it of 
the control which it ought to have over its own stand- 
ards, or take from it any means it now possesses of keep- 
ing out the unfit. It certainly would not 'put the colleges 
at the mercy of the schools.' " 

Here we have college opinion falling in line with the 
evident tendencies in the developments of secondary 
education, and we have here also a frank recognition of 



28 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the necessity that this education find itself more com- 
pletely through more clearly conceiving the educational 
possibilities inherent in the materials of instruction. 

The High School of the Future. — The general features 
of our future public high school,, "the people's college," 
have been summed up by A. F. Lange x as follows: 

" The need of vital continuity and flexibility is that of 
enlarging the girth of secondary education. Its cultural 
mission, to begin with, can no longer be fulfilled through 
the so-called culture studies alone. Little by little we 
shall doubtless learn to teach mathematics and the 
sciences, history and civics, literature and the languages 
so as to start with actual life for knowing and to come 
back to it for doing, but even then we cannot wisely leave 
out the subjects that specifically epitomize the economic 
activities of our contemporary civilization and lead over 
to the material side of the world's work. What life has 
ceased to give the school must supply and improve upon. 
Quite apart from vocational issues, efficient citizenship, 
the very heart of liberal culture from the view-point of 
Democracy, demands nowadays a trinity of developed 
senses — a vivid historic sense, the scientific evolutional 
sense, and a practical economic sense. It implies that 
neither those who can and will prolong their school 
careers nor those who must cut them short should be 
deprived of the chance to get and keep in active, intelli- 
gent, sympathetic touch with the work and the workers 
of our farms, our industries, our commerce. Accord- 
ingly, no high school is fully adequate to its cultural 
purposes until it has a department of agriculture, or of 
commerce, or of the mechanical and domestic arts, a 

1 University of California Chronicle, vol. XII, No. 4, "Self-Directed 
High School Development." 



CURRENT DEMANDS 29 

department accessible not only to the incurables but to 
every student, a department in charge of teachers, every 
whit as broadly and thoroughly trained and as civilized 
as those of other departments — ought to be. The univer- 
sities must further this development by training teachers 
and by welcoming the student who has had the good fort- 
une or good sense to choose some of the courses in ap- 
plied knowledge along with the rest. Sweetness and light 
and overalls are a perfectly feasible and very effective 
combination. . . . American communities will have to 
create more vocational schools than hitherto of second- 
ary grade. In the interest, however, of both the individ 
ual and of the common weal our educational expansion 
must be guided by three principles. First, no technical 
school must be so narrow in aim and scope as to cheat the 
pupil out of his heritage of race culture as embodied in 
language and the institutional achievements of his people. 
Second, no cultural high school must be allowed to be- 
come so narrow in aim and scope as to deprive its pupils 
of the opportunity of acquiring the economic sense and 
of finding themselves and their fellowmen by many-sided 
doing, related directly at one point or another to the busi- 
ness, or the agriculture, or the industries of the nation. 
Third, other things being equal, the surest guarantee of 
living together in the bonds of peace and of advancing 
together on the road of national destiny is the co-educa- 
tion of all sorts and conditions of young people, and the 
longer they can be kept together the better for them and 
the general welfare when their turn comes to constitute 
the people, the State. . . . 

"What the American college of two or three genera- 
tions ago did for the few, the American high school is 
called upon to do for the many, only more adequately. 



30 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

The notch reached by the college before the latter half of 
the nineteenth century should be the high school teachers' 
starting-point for measuring high school efficiency. . . . 
Called and chosen to represent and serve the nation 
through an institution of this character, high school 
men and women, self-conscious of their trust, will not 
fail to see that a secondary teacher must no longer be a 
second-hand teacher. We all know, of course, how fatal 
to all concerned it is when a university specialist runs 
amuck among high schools. But hari kari is dangerous, 
too, and this the would-be modern high school com- 
mits whose teachers cannot stand up alone in twentieth 
century scholarship and culture. Ideally, only the best 
scholar-teachers are really good enough for the high 
school. Only they can make it what it should be, the 
cultural centre of every community. Only they can 
really emancipate the high school, keep out pseudo- 
university practices, and at the same time assist the univer- 
sities in the exercise of their chief function, which is not 
to act as an authority over anybody or anything, but to 
train young men and women to become their own author- 
ities." 



CHAPTER II 
THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS OF COURSES OF STUDY 

Charles Hughes Johnston 

Twofold Purpose of a Course of Study. — It may have 
seemed to the less conservative readers of the preceding 
chapter that the practical considerations there adduced 
as genuine and urgent constitute a sufficient basis for 
our high school programme of studies. To the more 
conservative readers these considerations have doubtless 
seemed ineffectual substitutes for what one should regard 
as the permanent and respectable aims of secondary 
education. Either of these conclusions would be a mis- 
construction. The purpose of the course of study is two- 
fold; to embody content best adapted to immediate social 
and economic requirements; and to select subject-matter 
also with reference to our ability to use it best educa- 
tionally, that is, to make it over into life disciplines, into 
effectual habits and desirable mental traits. 

Disciplinary Aspect of Education. — The other side of 
the case must hence receive just as careful consideration. 
Education would appear to lose a vital characteristic if 
we ignore its purely disciplinary, its traditionally honored 
function. This we have in great measure tended of late 
to ignore. The cry for high school freedom from domi- 
nation, even when justified, has carried with it the tone 
of impatience in directing mental processes all of which 



32 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

must be slowly, painstakingly, and expertly supervised if 
they are to be permanently worth while. Indolent and 
careless intellectual attitudes, superficiality and lack of 
thoroughness or of finished knowledge of a few funda- 
mental subjects, inability and disinclination to think 
an issue or a problem through to its minute details, half- 
way racings into utilitarian fields, a tendency to tackle 
anything but the "trunk of the curricula," "novelty 
specifics" in which pedagogical mastery of the new 
material is not assured, all characterize questionable 
traits in high school graduates and suggest that we must 
regain our faith in the ultimate values and permanent 
results of drilled training such as some of the older dis- 
ciplines and traditional models seem still uniquely to 
afford. 

That this may not seem too severe an arraignment 
of much current high school work one should read the 
Fifth Annual Report of the Carnegie Foundation for the 
Advancement of Teaching, particularly the impartial 
and kindly but incisive critical comments of a Prussian 
exchange teacher and of many Oxford tutors who speak 
freshly from pedagogical experience with select groups 
of American youths. If this conviction, that we need in 
America a general stiffening up in methods of intellectual 
disciplines, be not beside the mark, it becomes the duty 
of high school teachers to face squarely this problem of 
conditions for effective discipline, physical, intellectual, 
and temperamental. 

Modifications of the Ideal of Literal Discipline and 
Automatism. — Yet one may not declare too baldly this 
disciplinary programme for modern teachers. 1 It has 

1 For a most violent attack upon the very principle at stake here consult 
the tirade by Dr. Boris Sidis in his recent book, "Philistine and Genius." 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 33 

dreary historic associations, implies a superimposition 
of unnatural tasks upon spontaneous curiosity, and 
reminds us of the painful and laborious literalness of 
memoriter performances once called "learning the les- 
son," or the "coming to books" of the old pedagogue 
days. There have been many attempts to restate the 
core of disciplinary education in softer and more attractive 
phrasing. Rousseau and even Tolstoi and Nietzsche 
have made the attempt. In a recent essay on the " Social 
Value of the College- B red " the late William James has 
summed up the goal of the educative process to be that 
of equipping students with trained insight into and ap- 
preciation of the essentially human qualities, " the know- 
ing of good men when we see them." Dewey would 
make most prominent the aim of "socializing" our stu- 
dents by persisently selecting subject-matter and method 
with reference to their value in developing these social 
traits. Jastrow, in his late book on " Qualities of Men," 
attempts inconclusively to restate educational aims and 
values, but hovers vaguely around some indefinite aesthetic 
goal. His result is unfortunately not tangible enough 
for actual guidance. We may condemn or praise it by 
calling it "suggestive." Osborn in his "Huxley and 
Education" is clearer. He would have us aim at de- 
veloping in our students "constructive thinking," specu- 
lative ability, generalizing power, facility in solving in- 
tellectual problems and in initiating intellectual research. 
This is perhaps beyond our high school students. Rowe, 
in a book important for schoolmen, "Habit Formation 
and the Science of Teaching," would have us analyze 
exhaustively our subject-matter with reference to possi- 
bilities in it for initiating and refining specific habit proc- 
esses. This treatment of the subject is well done and 



34 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

from a single psychological point of view satisfactory. 
All of these represent plausible attacks upon the problem 
under discussion, differing in some points of emphasis 
from the purely disciplinary one upon which this chapter 
must focus. 

Illustrations of the Need for a Thoroughgoing Refor- 
mulation of the Doctrine of Discipline. — The following 
extracts from brilliant but perhaps tempermentally par- 
tisan statements of our educational demand represent 
what part, in varying degrees of emphasis, mere individual 
opinion and conviction play in literary treatments of our 
problem. They illustrate further the urgent need that 
teachers work out the more fundamental question which 
the conflict of aims here shown seems to call for. The 
reader may well attempt to articulate an ideal which 
will harmonize or supplant those quoted herewith: 

You have heard the psychologizing educator advise the formation 
of good, fixed, stable habits in early life. Now I want to warn you 
against the dangers of such unrestricted advice. Fixed adaptations, 
stable habits, tend to raise the thresholds of mental life, tend to in- 
hibit the liberation, the output of reserve energy. Avoid routine. 
Do not let your pupils fall into the ruts of habits and customs. Do 
not let even the best of habits harden beyond the point of further 
possible modification. 

Where there is a tendency toward formation of over-abundant 
mental cartilage, set your pupils to work under widely different 
circumstances. Confront them with a changed set of conditions. 
Keep them on the move. Surprise them by some apparently para- 
doxical relations and strange phenomena. Do not let them settle 
down to one definite set of actions or reactions. Remember that 
rigidity, like sclerosis, induration of tissue, means decay of originality, 
destruction of man's genius. With solidified and unvariable habits 
not only does the reserve energy become entirely inaccessible, but 
the very individuality is extinguished. 

Do not make of our children a nation of philistines. Why say, 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 35 

you make man in your own image? Do not make your schools 
machine-shops, turning out on one uniform pattern so much medi- 
ocrity per year. Cultivate variability. The tendency toward varia- 
bility is the most precious part of a good education. Beware of the 
philistine with his set, stable habits. 

The important principle in education is not so much Formation 
of habits as the power of their Re-formation. The power of breaking 
up habits is by far the more essential factor of a good education. It 
is in this power of breaking down habits that we can find the key 
for the unlocking of the otherwise inaccessible stores of subconscious 
reserve energy. The cultivation of the power of habit-disintegration 
is what constitutes the proper education of man's genius. — (Boris 
Sidis, "Philistine and Genius," 191 1.) 

Eleutheromania may be defined as the instinct to throw off not 
simply outer and artificial limitations, but all limitations whatsoever. 
. . . Society is plainly suffering from a lack rather than a super- 
abundance of discipline and restraint. Many of the greatest of our 
modern artists, Hugo, Wagner, Ibsen, etc., have been eleutheroma- 
niacs. For over a century the world has been fed on a steady diet of 
revolt. Everybody is becoming tinged with eleutheromania, taken 
up with his rights rather than with his duties, more and more unwill- 
ing to accept limitations. . . . 

One of these results (of the drift toward a naturalistic conception 
of life) has been a weakening of the idea of a law for human nature as 
something distinct from the law for physical nature. "There are 
two laws, discrete, not reconciled," says Emerson — "Law for man, 
and law for thing." But for the pure naturalist there is only one law 
— the law for thing. Now any one who thus identifies man with 
phenomenal nature, whether scientifically or sentimentally, is almost 
inevitably led to value only the virtues of expansion; for, according 
to natural law, to grow is to expand. . . . The sentimental naturalist 
wishes to expand emotionally, and is averse to anything that would 
set a bound to emotion. The scientific naturalist would go on in- 
creasing forever in knowledge and power, and eyes askance anything 
that seems to fix limits to this increase. 

Yet in spite of the naturalists, scientific and sentimental, we must 
insist not only that there is a law for man as well as a law for thing, 
but that the actual reason may be given why the two laws are dis- 



36 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

crete and unreconciled. If man as a natural phenomenon grows by 
expanding, man as a man grows by concentrating. . . . 

The chief use of any widening out of knowledge and sympathy 
must be to prepare man more fully for the supreme moment of con- 
centration and selection, the moment when he exercises his own 
special faculties. Now, to select rightly a man must have right 
standards, and to have right standards means in practice that he must 
constantly set bounds to his own impulses. Man grows in the per- 
fection proper to his own nature in almost direct ratio to his growth in 
restraint and self-control. — (Irving Babbitt, "The New Laocoon," 

IQIO.) 

Even William James, whose treatment of "Habit" is 
a psychological classic, describes Thomas Davidson ap- 
provingly thus: 

He avoided stated hours of work on principle. Reprehending 
(mildly) a certain chapter of my own on "Habit," he said that it was 
a fixed rule with him to form no regular habits. When he found him- 
self in danger of settling into even a good one, he made a point of inter- 
rupting it. Habits and methods make a prisoner of a man, destroy 
his readiness, keep him from answering the call of the fresh moment. 
Individualist a outrance, Davidson felt that every hour was an unique 
entity, to whose claims one should lie open. . . . Life must be flexi- 
ble. You ask for a free man, and these Utopias give you an "inter- 
changeable part" with a fixed number in a rule-bound organism. 
The real thing to aim at is liberation of the inner interests. Give 
a man possession of a soul, and he will work out his own happi- 
ness under any set of conditions. — (William James, "Memories and 
Studies," 191 1.) 

Theory of Formal Discipline. — The discussions, in- 
vestigations, and experimental tests of the possibilities 
of transfer of training of the last two decades, known as 
the Formal Discipline Controversy, constitute an epoch 
in the history of educational theorizing. These seemed 
to strike at the root of all former faiths in general edu- 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 37 

cation. There is little, however, in the entire outcome 
thus far which is reassuring. We have neither proved 
nor disproved the formal discipline dogma. Probably 
no bald theory of inevitable and definite results of specific 
intellectual exercises ever existed in the mind of any 
thoughtful educator. If we study the great formulations 
of educational theory by Plato, Locke, Rousseau, or 
Spencer, we shall find it uncritical to pin them down as 
adherents or opponents to a specifically stated doctrine of 
discipline. They qualify conditions and modify the likeli- 
hood of definite spread of effects. 

The following rough diagram may help indicate how 
curriculum makers can, however, scarcely escape framing 
courses of study with reference to a partially articulate 
conviction as to how permanent effects of discipline, or 
spread of training, may be secured. The long vertical 
dividing line may represent the point of the student's 
passage from school training into life. The horizontal 
line or lines on the left may represent the degree of re- 
liance upon one or more general or partially specific dis- 
ciplines which may "spread" or become concentrated in 
later life pursuits for which the system in question pro- 
vides. The more of these lines we find the less the 
reliance placed in any absolute theory of Formal Dis- 
cipline. The lines on the right of the vertical represent 
the measure of conscious adaptation to those vocations 
and professions in the practice of which school disci- 
plines are supposed to be essentials. The fewer of these 
lines the less democratic the system. The actual num- 
ber of horizontal lines has no significance beyond indi- 
cating relative degrees of special provision for prepara- 
tory and distinctive mental discipline and for life. The 
original Socratic method, Fig. I, and by inference the 



38 



I. Socrates. 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

TRAINING "" LIFE PURSUITS 



n. Plato. 



m. Middle Ages. 



IV. Classical School . 



V. Spencer. 



VI. 19th Century Schools. 



VII . 20th Century Schools , 



Gymnastics 



Quadrivium 



> 



Complex Curriculum 



Specific Discipline 



Philosopher 



s Soldier 

"> N _ Artisan_ 





FORMAL DISCIPLINE AND COURSES OF STUDY 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 39 

course of study the Greek sage had in mind, stand per- 
haps as our most extreme example of faith in the spread 
of a specific discipline. One method, dialectic, or skill 
in oral extraction of principle from the concrete subject 
in hand, and one subject-matter, topics with moral impli- 
cations inherent, constitute what to us now seem to be 
rather meagre materials for curriculum construction. 
Plato's system, Fig. II, the most clearly articulated 
course of study in the history of education, embodies an 
explicit recognition of the limits of formal training. Two 
great types of training, the mental with a dominant 
speculative emphasis, and the physical, the body as a 
gracefully expressive medium, are distinguished. Many 
subtypes are allowed for. In addition to this there is 
recognized only one chief product, the making of the 
philosopher statesman. The by-products of his type of 
training, however, constitute our chief concern, the prac- 
tical training of ordinary and moderately gifted folk who 
constitute the body politic of our democracy. The in- 
tellectualized and dehumanized quadrivium and trivium 
framework, Fig. Ill, or the arithmetic, geometry, astrono- 
my, and music, and the grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic 
regime of barren formalism and stereotyped procedure, 
blind to the rich variety of social forces and functions and 
needs, remains still historically an important era for the 
student of the history of the evolution of disciplinary con- 
ceptions of education. Likewise, the old classical culture 
curriculum, Fig. IV, is indicative of an era in the same 
history of educational thought. 

The necessity of distinctive disciplines and the con- 
sequent pressure of dominant professions make any 
unqualified faith in the value of one general discipline 
practically, if not theoretically, untenable in this eigh- 



40 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

teenth century. The greatest, boldest, and most open 
attack upon traditional methods of devising courses of 
study — after Rousseau and Pestalozzi, who make their 
powerful fight for a renovation of spirit throughout the 
course rather than a positive reconstruction of its content 
— comes from Herbert Spencer. He is the champion of 
the scientific formulation of the purposes of the course ac- 
cording to well understood and commercially acceptable 
standards. No framer of a curriculum for secondary 
education should undertake his task without a thorough- 
going critical analysis — and, I venture to add, a rejection 
— of Spencerian principles. Fig. V represents, from this 
point of view, Spencer's underlying doctrine, his deference 
to the practical demands of various vocations. It likewise 
shows how naively Spencer is caught by the very fallacy 
he strikes at in others. He champions narrowly and 
consistently a one-type training, the inculcation of an 
impartial, depersonalized scientific attitude. Every sub- 
ject in his proposed curriculum functions for the same 
monotonous purpose. It is merely a substitution of one 
extreme type of formal discipline for another, the scientific 
for the classical-linguistic. It is well adapted, as Royce 
has observed, to the production of "little Herberts." It 
presaged, however, later developments, and we to-day 
inherit, though inarticulately, and even unconsciously, 
many elements of this and of the other types sketched 
above. The next working conception represented in the 
diagram by Fig. VI is a blind and in great measure un- 
satisfactory compromise. Specific disciplines, a qualified 
acceptance of likely but limited transfer of training, 
characterize the points of view of the leaders in second- 
ary education of the generation just past. The last 
illustration, if we add indefinitely to the lines drawn on 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 41 

either side in Fig. VII, may indicate the absurd extreme 
to which we may be led if we discard disciplinary con- 
ceptions altogether and seek to furnish literal training 
for the merely mechanical processes called for in the 
various life pursuits. 

Transference of Skill. — In a general discussion of this 
character one cannot fairly raise all the intricate and 
problematic psychological issues involved in the ques- 
tion of how one kind of skill or facility acquired in a 
particular branch of study, Latin for example, may later 
in life become transformed into expertness and more 
generalized control of faculties in a different kind of 
activity and in a different environment. One must go 
now fortunately to the sources. The mere fact that the 
validity of the dogma of discipline was seriously denied 
has put the whole question of the theoretical and scien- 
tific bases of the curriculum upon an experimental foot- 
ing. Adherents and opponents of the doctrine have been 
forced to resort to demonstrations, to conduct extended 
investigations, and to plan for experimental tests under 
reliable control conditions. The issue has cleared away 
obstructions and put a premium upon clearly articulate 
ideals. Already we mark the inevitable passing of a 
strictly faculty psychology — the pseudo-scientific support 
of the ancient doctrine. The burden of proof is now 
placed upon those who can ascribe no specific disciplines 
to their courses. From this theoretical commotion has 
come better reasons for the incorporation of even mathe- 
matics or the classics in our courses. It has ushered in 
an era of healthy school-room experimentation. Psy- 
chological insight into the complex elements involved in 
the simplest acts of memory, or attention, or learning, or 
habit forming and habit breaking, has revealed, for 



42 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the better professionally trained high school teacher, the 
unreliability of a traditionally final and mysterious atti- 
tude toward the educative process. In the tentative con- 
clusions thus far reached as the results of experiment it 
seems to have been established that there are degrees of 
inevitable loss in transfer, and that conditions for these 
degrees of transfer may be defined with some assurance. 
There has also come about naturally in this way the 
recognition that a teacher must define with more analytic 
insight just what traits or habits or attitudes he may 
safely seek to inculcate through the instrumentality of the 
distinctive subject-matter of his course. 1 We may safely 
predict that the upshot of this educational ferment as to 
disciplinary values of particular subjects will be the appear- 
ance shortly of treatises dealing with the psychologically 
distinctive values of all seriously proposed subjects for the 
high school course. The following chapters of this book 
represent an attempt to meet this anticipated demand. 

The chief urgency that schoolmen ground themselves in 
the incipient stages of this controversy is, not only that they 
may gain assurance as to the ultimate theoretical position 
to take, but that they may share constructively in the work 
of recording relevant observations and demonstrated re- 
sults, and that they may in this way add their influence 
and moral support to the effort to establish secondary 
teaching on a dignified and scientific professional basis. 

Experiments in Transfer of Skill. — The experimental 
investigations thus far have been in the main severely 
technical and under conditions only remotely analogous 
to those of the school-room. Thorndike's and Wood- 
worth's earlier work and even the pioneer tests for spread 

1 For a good discussion of the amplifications of this statement the 
reader may consult S. S. Colvin's "The Learning Process," ion. 



THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS 43 

of memory effects of Ebbinghaus and of James, the tests 
devised by Scripture and Davis, and the learning curves of 
Bryan and Harter, Swift, Book, Ruger, and others where 
transfer is in question — all seem to have dealt with more or 
less mechanical and literal acquisitions of skill. Where 
little or no transfer or even loss of transfer of skill acquired 
in the specified training resulted, we have tests under 
conditions which are neither natural nor desirable in 
school work. The investigations of Meumann and even 
more the recent work of Winch, although their results 
are meagre and questionable, seem to indicate that the 
tendency now is to make the school-room an educational 
laboratory. 1 This is par excellence, then, the school- 
man's scientific problem: How demonstrate the best 
conditions for the transference into permanent personal 
attitudes of the specific habits we, through our chosen 
subject-matter, may bring about? 

The first step for the teacher will be to enumerate and 
tabulate, exhaustively and discriminatingly, two lists of 
actual or possible student habits; first, those we seek to 
eradicate; and second, those we may reasonably seek to 
inculcate by a systematic, scientific, and artful method, 
planned to extend over periods of months, and not merely 
to be started by broken recitation doses. Habits in the 
broad sense of attitudes of mind, methods of study, sanity 
and prudence of judgment, accuracy of statement, and 
nicety of discrimination must be idealized and specifi- 
cally practiced under skilful teacher guidance. The 
laws of learning, the technique and complexity and per- 
sonal intimacy and pervasiveness of practically all habits, 

1 Colvin reports, in the book already referred to, that he has insti- 
tuted tests of various sorts under school-room conditions, and that his 
results are to be published. 



44 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

constitute a superb challenge to the teacher. These and 
myriads of similar problems are all wrapped up in this 
inevitable question of how we may more intelligently 
subject all our ideals and technical devices to constant 
scrutiny, and how patiently we must persevere in our 
attempts to choose the meatiest content at command and 
transform it through our unescapable disciplinary func- 
tion into student acquisitions which will bear the test 
of time and take definite form in the crucible of demo- 
cratic citizenship ordeals. Of how this may be done 
specifically through the subject-matter the schoolman has 
to select from, the chapters to follow attempt to indicate. 
Vital Questions for the Teacher. — Finally, it should be 
kept constantly in mind that, in the considerations of 
this chapter, two vital questions are involved. One is 
that we must make our choice of studies and of selected 
materials in these studies with reference to the disci- 
plinary effects inherent in them, as well as with reference 
to the immediate social use and advantage they possess. 
The other is that, after our curriculum subjects and the 
particular topics within these special fields have been 
settled upon, we must refine our methods so as to make 
the lest possible use of the subject-matter in the course. 
This latter point applies particularly to the average 
teacher who unfortunately at present has little to say in 
the choices of curriculum subjects. Maximum results 
and permanent benefits become the goal. From the point 
of view of this second question also, not only the classical 
studies, but agriculture or domestic science, or even music, 
must be measured finally in terms of a broadly conceived 
disciplinary standard. 

For reading references for this chapter and later chapters, see bibli- 
ography at the end of the book. 



CHAPTER III 

HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS SINCE 
THE RENAISSANCE 

G. L. Jackson, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, 
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

Aim of Chapter. — The aim of this chapter is briefly 
to show the various factors which have shaped the curric- 
ulum of the secondary school from the Renaissance to 
the present time, to account for the new types of second- 
ary schools which from time to time have sprung into 
being, to point out the traditional factors in the present 
course of study, and, having set forth the origin, aim, and 
conditions which gave them a place in the secondary pro- 
gramme, to give a basis for judging the rationality of the 
present curriculum with respect to its power to serve 
present needs. This survey can touch but lightly the 
most important educational epochs, and statements must 
be made more or less dogmatically which would be quali- 
fied in some respects in a more detailed study. 

Greek Education. — As the Renaissance was a revival 
of the liberal education of the Greeks and the Romans 
and was a reaction against the education and the ideals 
of the Middle Ages, it is necessary to set forth the larger 
aims of these educational systems. The education of 
the Greeks was aristocratic, that is, on account of the 
cost it was possible only to the few; its aim was to de- 

45 



46 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

velop the individual for the noble enjoyment of leisure 
and to fit him for leadership especially in the field of 
politics. To the Athenian the field of action and the 
field of speculation were not restricted; he might follow 
the argument wherever it chanced to lead, exercise his 
mental powers in any way that pleased his fancy, and with 
what results we are all familiar. The education which 
prepared for these mature activities the Greeks called 
the liberal education. It was informally organized into 
elementary, secondary, and higher in the latter part of the 
fourth century. As a rule the following subjects stood 
between the work of the elementary school and the 
higher branches as given in the rhetorical and philosoph- 
ical schools — grammar (including composition, history, 
and literature), arithmetic, astronomy, geography, geom- 
etry, music, and gymnastics. The greatest amount of 
time was put upon the study of grammar. 

Roman Education. — The Romans were greatly in- 
fluenced by Greek methods, subject-matter, and organ- 
ization, and, according to the usual Roman practice of 
taking for their own use whatever seemed to their ad- 
vantage in the development of the imperial idea, they 
adopted the liberal education of the Greeks but modified 
it to the characteristic practical bent of the Roman 
genius. Roman education, like the Greek, was for the 
few and was concerned ideally with the development of 
the orator. Quintilian, who represents in his Institutes 
the best type of Roman education, makes grammar (used 
in the Greek sense), geometry, astronomy, and music 
the subjects of the secondary curriculum. Grammar is 
the secondary subject to which the Romans gave the 
greatest amount of attention. By the middle of the 
fourth century A. D., Roman education had crystallized 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 47 

into the study of those subjects which were later known 
as the seven liberal arts — grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, 
arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music. The first 
three, — or the trivium, as they were called — were propae- 
deutic to the mathematical subjects or the quadrivium. 
Medissval Education. — Without entering into a discus- 
sion of the attitude of Christianity toward pagan learning, 
we may make the bald statement that with the downfall 
of pagan worship the seven liberal arts were looked upon 
by the Christians with less disfavor than when these arts 
were ministering to the needs of their opponents. Through 
the influence of St. Augustine, Cassiodorus, and the Rules 
of Saint Benedict the Egyptians were despoiled, and 
pagan learning, greatly modified by its new aim, became 
a part of the training for leadership in the spiritual life 
of the time. The following is an ideal mediaeval course 
of study outlined by William, Abbot of Hirschau (1069- 
1091): 

The course, however, is that because all teaching is done by 
word of mouth, we are to be instructed in speaking first. This 
instruction is divided into three parts: to write and speak correctly 
as prescribed by grammar; to prove what has to be proved in con- 
formity with logic, and to ornate the same, as taught by rhetoric. 
Thus fitted out and provided with these arms, we must begin the 
study of philosophy, in which the order is, first, the quadrivium, and 
then the Holy Scriptures, arriving, through knowledge of that which 
is created, to the knowledge of the Creator. 

The ideal monastic curriculum is seen to have con- 
tained the subjects named by the Greeks as fundamental 
to the liberal education, also those by which the Roman 
aimed to produce the orator. The church used them as 
a means of spiritual growth; the aim is purely ecclesiasti- 



48 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

cal. Naturally, this type of education did not appeal to 
the laymen. It was not until feudalism connected itself 
with religion and religious wars that the secular nobility 
had what might be termed a system of education, that 
is, the discipline of chivalry. It contained but little of 
what might be termed book-learning. 

The Renaissance. — Space forbids any discussion of the 
causes which brought about the Renaissance. It must 
suffice to say that the movement begins in the thirteenth 
century as a reaction against the spirit of authority and 
constraint which marks the mediaeval period in practically 
all avenues of expression. The great interest in classical 
literature is a later phase of the general movement; the 
desire for liberty and freedom came first. When men 
imbued with this spirit read the classics, they found there 
depicted men who had enjoyed the all-round intellectual, 
aesthetic, and physical development which they as reaction- 
aries craved. Thus the classics came to be valued for 
their content rather than as material ipr the illustration of 
grammatical rules which was the use to which they were 
usually put in mediaeval education. But in addition to 
the content the men. of the Renaissance recognized the 
beauty and the value of classic style or expression. They 
recognized the fact that but for the form in which the 
content was expressed the works would not have lived. 
However, in the early Renaissance the form was second- 
ary to the content. 

The broad conception of life peculiar to the Renais- 
sance, a life which to a certain extent could be realized 
through a study of books, offered a basis for the fusion of 
the ideals of the knight or courtier, as he was now called, 
and the ideals of the learned class. This is no unim- 
portant matter in the history of civilization. This fusion 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 49 

of ideals is brought out clearly by Castiglione (1478- 
1529) in his "Courtier." 

But besyde goodnesse, the true & principall ornament of the 
mynde in everye manne (I beleave) are letters although the French- 
menne know onelye the noblenesse of armes, and passe for nothing 
besides; so that they do not onelye not sett by letters, but they 
rather abhorre them & they think it a great vilany whan any one of 
them is called a clarke. 

The greatest educational effects of the Renaissance 
were in the field of secondary education, and the school 
which best typifies the ideals of the early period — the 
development of mind, soul, and body — was that of 
Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua. His curriculum and 
method were based on the Institutes of Quintilian; the 
style and spirit of literary composition on the study of 
Cicero. 

The Sixteenth Century. — But the broad conception of 
the aim of education and the treatment of subject-matter 
as a means to compass this desired end, had suffered by 
the sixteenth century a decided change. This was due to 
admiration of the style of Cicero irrespective of content, 
and to teachers who could drill vocabularies and the 
rules of grammar and rhetoric into their pupils with 
greater ease than they could form character. This change 
was reinforced later by the Reformation and counter- 
Reformation whose immediate influence was to make 
education narrow, scholastic, and theological. The no- 
bility became estranged from this type of education; 
scholars were again looked upon by the gentle class 
with contempt; and a knowledge of the world and of 
people was considered to be the desirable education for 
the gentleman. 



50 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

No better illustration of the organized secondary edu- 
cation of the period, both from the point of view of its 
influence and its course of study, can be found than 
that of Sturm's Gymnasium at Strasburg, founded in 
1538. The subjects of this curriculum formed the back- 
bone of secondary education in Europe and America to 
the middle of the nineteenth century, though, of course, 
the schools of the smaller towns and villages could not 
give so extensive a training as is described. The boy 
entered this secondary school at the age of six and im- 
mediately began the study of the following curriculum 
in which the dominance of Cicero is shown by italics: 

Reading and writing. Catechism. Latin grammar. Letters of 
Cicero. 

Latin grammar. Eclogues of Vergil. Letters of Cicero. Con- 
versation in Latin. Religious instruction. 

Latin grammar. De Amicitia and De Senectute. Selections from 
Vergil, Catullus, Tibullus, and Horace. Latin composition (prose 
and verse). Religious training. 

De Oratore. Poetic selections from authors named above. 
Caesar's Commentaries. Latin composition. Religious instruction. 

Greek begun. De Officiis. Georgics. Pro Lege Manila. Latin 
prose based on De Oratore. Religious training. 

Cicero and Demosthenes; Vergil and Homer. Rhetoric. Sallust 
and Plautus. Religious teaching. 

Dialectic. Rhetoric. Greek orations. Sallust, Caesar. Livy. 
Religious teaching. 

Dialectic. Dialogues of Plato and Cicero. De Oratore. Hebrew. 
Religious teaching. 

Declamation. Aristotle. Arithmetic. Astrology. Demosthenes 
and Homer. Oratory. Hebrew. Religious teaching. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 51 

Predominance of Latin. — As this is the typical curricu- 
lum of the best secondary schools during the sixteenth 
century in Germany, France, and England, let us ex- 
amine it somewhat more closely. We find but slight 
attention given to mathematical science — although arith- 
metic appears in Sturm's curriculum, no time was found 
for nearly fifty years in which to teach it; natural science is 
given no place, neither is geography, though ancient geog- 
raphy was doubtless touched upon in the classical studies 
by some teachers; physical training was not given; no 
attention was paid to the vernacular; no training of an 
aesthetic nature except in appreciation of literary form is 
to be found. But little, it is evident, is left of the Renais- 
sance conception of the aim of education. The ready 
command of the Latin language was the main object of 
secondary school work and it must be noted with respect 
to this aim that Latin was still the language of scholars, of 
scholarly books, and formed with Greek and Hebrew the 
necessary tool for investigating religious sources. But 
the classics were no longer studied for their content value. 
The emphasis, as has been remarked, was placed upon 
the practical command of the language through gram- 
mar, rhetoric, and composition — the liberal education of 
Plato, of Quintilian, of Vittorino, has become confused 
with drill, memory work, and slavish imitation. The 
social force of this curriculum of the sixteenth century 
lies in the fact that it emphasizes and supports the 
religious spirit of the time. The Reformation and 
counter-Reformation schools rescued ecclesiastical train- 
ing from what might be termed the worldliness of the 
Renaissance. 

The Seventeenth Century. — The secondary schools of 
the early seventeenth century were as follows: In Ger- 



52 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

many, after 1543, they were of two types with respect 
to control and support: (1) the city schools; e. g., Stras- 
burg, which had their roots in the mediaeval period and 
were controlled and maintained by the municipalities; 
(2) the state schools beginning at the above date and 
founded under Reformation influences, particularly 
Luther's, administered and supported by the state. 
Gradually the state has extended its sphere of educa- 
tional influence until the State Gymnasien form at the 
present time, as Paulsen puts it, the backbone of the 
German educational system. Tuition charges were 
assessed; in fact, to-day the United States and Canada 
are the only countries which have an absolutely free sys- 
tem of secondary schools. 

In England there were the (1) English public schools, 
e. g., Eton, Harrow, etc., and (2) the Latin grammar 
schools. Neither of these types of schools was under 
government supervision. With respect to support and 
control these schools were either upon foundations (en- 
dowed) ; proprietary i. e., founded and governed by a com- 
mercial corporation; and private. The endowed schools 
in particular provided for the free education of a certain 
number of boys who were usually called " foundationers" ; 
all others in all schools paid fixed fees. 

In France the most satisfactory secondary education 
was to be had in the Colleges of the Jesuits. It is agreed 
on all sides that the Jesuit teachers and the Jesuit schools 
were the best which Europe afforded from the late six- 
teenth to the middle of the eighteenth century. Tuition 
was free. 

The Latin grammar schools of the American colonies 
in their general aim and curriculum were like their pro- 
totypes in the mother country. In the agreement be- 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 53 

tween the town of Dorchester and the teacher for the 
year 1655 appears the following: 

... to teach in a free Schoole in Dorchester all such Cheldren as 
by the inhabitants shall be Comitted vnto his Care in Ennglish Laten 
and Greeke as from time to time the Cheldren shall be Capable 
and allso instruct them in Writinge as he shall be able: which is to 
be vnderstood such Cheldren who are so far entred all redie to 
knowe there Leters and to spell somewhat 

Massachusetts in 1647 an ^ Connecticut in 1650 made 
the type of school mentioned above compulsory by the 
following enactment: 

It is further ordered, That where any town shall increase to the 
number of one hundred families or householders, they shall set up 
a grammar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youth, 
so far as they may be fitted, for the university . . . 

To recapitulate : We find that in the early seventeenth 
century the study of Latin primarily and Greek secondarily 
constitutes the main work offered in the secondary schools 
of Europe and the length of time for which this statement 
continues to hold true has been suggested; that, by cen- 
turies of teaching, the method of instruction in the Latin 
language was wellnigh perfected and the subject-matter 
satisfactorily selected; that the results of Latin teaching 
of that time, from the point of view of knowing Latin, 
were far better than at present; that the secondary 
school prepares for the university; that elementary edu- 
cation consists in the bare ability to read and to write. 
As a result of this purely linguistic type of education we 
find that the secondary school acts as an extremely nar- 
row selective agency. Only such as are naturally gifted 



54 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

for language work are able to survive and achieve any 
success in this linguistic discipline. To others, organized 
education offers no opportunity for the development of 
those powers or interests not demanded by the Latin 
grammar school. With respect to method of teaching 
we find that subject-matter is arranged and presented 
from that point of view which appeals to the adult. 
We now have a part of our present day curriculum 
firmly established — the remainder of the chapter will 
concern itself with those transition features which 
brought about new types of schools and secured a place 
for other fields of experience alongside the traditional 
subjects. 

Reaction from the Reformation. — The vital, liberal- 
izing force of the Reformation soon came to an end. 
Religion became formal and consisted for the most part 
of intellectual assent to a skilfully drawn creed. Re- 
action came through two channels: first, the develop- 
ment of scientific interests which since the early Renais- 
sance had led an extremely attenuated existence, and, 
second, the rise of a new religious spirit which placed the 
emphasis upon faith and conduct. Bacon (1561-1626), 
Hobbes (1 588-1679), and Descartes (1 596-1 650) were 
the leaders of those reactionary forces opposed to the 
dominant intellectual life of the times. They stand in 
particular for that movement which developed the 
mathematical sciences and applied them to the solution 
of the problems of natural science and, in general, for the 
use of reason in all activities. This transition period 
marks the rise of modern philosophy and science, and, 
on the political side, the rise of the modern state. The 
movements toward religious reform are known in Eng- 
land as Puritanism, in Germany as Pietism, and in 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 55 

France as Jansenism; the leading educational exponents 
were Milton, Francke, and Saint-Cyran. 

This movement was highly influential in the field of 
secondary education. It placed the emphasis upon the 
utilitarian, upon the ''real" subjects — mathematics, mod- 
ern language (especially French), physics, political and 
social science, geography, modern history, etc. The 
value of ancient science and language was violently 
attacked, though Latin was still considered a necessary 
part of a gentleman's training. During the last half 
of the seventeenth and all of the eighteenth century 
it was Descartes and Locke, Leibnitz and Kant who 
directed the trend of thought, rather than the great 
theologians. 

Practical Result of Reaction. — On the side of organiza- 
tion this movement resulted in the establishment of three 
types of schools — the Ritter-Akademien or schools for 
the sons of the German nobility; the school of Francke 
at Halle which attempted to unite the realistic and prac- 
tical subjects with the traditional curriculum and whose 
influence is directly responsible for the present Real- 
Schulen of Germany ; and the academies. Probably the 
best known example of the early American academy 
is the school founded in 1751 through the influence of 
Benjamin Franklin — "The Academy and Charitable 
School of Pennsylvania." Provision was made in this 
academy for the differentiation of the curriculum into 
three courses — Latin, English, and mathematics. Frank- 
lin did not consider the study of ancient languages 
necessary for the majority of boys, and, though he 
planned for the traditional course of study, his main 
interest was in the English course or school. After 
the usual elementary preparation of the time, i. e., 



56 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

reading and writing, the boy pursued the following 
subjects : 

Reading the best English authors, spelling, English grammar, 
rhetoric, declamation, ancient and modern history, natural philos- 
ophy, English composition, moral philosophy, geography, logic. 

With respect to the English course he adds: 

The hours of each day are to be divided and disposed in such a 
manner as that some classes may be with the writing master, im- 
proving their hands; others with the mathematical master, learning 
arithmetic, accounts, geography, the use of globes, drawing, mechan- 
ics, etc.; while the rest are in the English school, under the English 
master's care. 

The Classics. — Since the churches in those countries 
affected by the Reformation did not use Latin, and since 
French had superseded Latin as the language of court 
and diplomacy, the social value of the classics, which 
has been previously mentioned, was largely gone. For 
teaching purposes, however, the classics still presented a 
definite body of subject-matter and a well -tested method 
of instruction ; — this could not be said of the sciences at 
this stage of their development. The classics also had 
the school traditions of centuries behind them. In order 
to resist the efforts of the rationalistic-scientific move- 
ment to dislodge them from the curriculum, the study 
of the classics was urged not upon social but upon psy- 
chological grounds} It was held that the value of edu- 
cation depends not so much on what is learned as on 
the process of learning. This psychological basis, re- 
inforced by the rationalistic spirit of the age, also accounts 

1 Cf. chapter II. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 57 

for the addition of mathematics to the traditional lin- 
guistic curriculum. According to Locke: 

Would you have a man reason well, you must use him to it be- 
times, exercise his mind in observing the connection of ideas and 
following them in train. Nothing does this better than mathe- 
matics, which therefore should be taught all those who have the 
time and opportunity, not so much to make them mathematicians 
as to make them reasonable creatures. 

On the above grounds the schools mentioned as giving 
secondary education at the close of the sixteenth century 
still flourished at the close of the eighteenth century, with 
curriculum but slightly modified through the introduction 
of a small amount of mathematics. Exception is to be 
made, however, in the case of the French College. The 
Jesuits were expelled from France in 1762 and the Colleges 
of the University of Paris were abolished in 1793 by act of 
the Convention. The close of the eighteenth century, then, 
finds secondary education in France in a chaotic state. 

Influence of Rousseau. — The general effects of the in- 
fluence of Rousseau upon secondary education is pri- 
marily to be found in the spirit of the work given in 
the secondary schools already in existence. One aspect 
of his theories united readily with the Neo-Humanistic 
movement which stressed (1) the idea of free natural de- 
velopment to be secured through a study of Greek au- 
thors, and (2) the cultural value of historical study — 
this affected the Gymnasien. Another aspect of his 
social and educational theories reinforced the principles 
fundamental to the existence of the Real-Schulen and the 
Academies, in so far as they dealt with the realities of 
nature and sought to impart a knowledge of the princi- 
ples underlying commercial and trade practices. His 



58 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

whole theory was a blow aimed at class privilege and it 
gave additional impulse to the upward movement of the 
middle-class and its importance in the sphere of poli- 
tics. This leads directly to the breaking down of those 
barriers which had confined secondary education to the 
few. Education was now looked upon as a civil rather 
than as an ecclesiastical matter; as related to the state 
rather than to the church. Education was one of the 
matters to which the French Conventions gave the great- 
est attention; but little, however, was actually accom- 
plished. The educational implication of Fichte's appeal 
to the German nation was national and civic rather than 
ecclesiastical. The extension of suffrage in England, 
beginning in 1830, was immediately followed by legis- 
lative enactment aiming to increase opportunity for ed- 
ucation. Our Ordinance of 1787 contains the follow- 
ing clause: "religion, morals, and knowledge being 
necessary to good government and the happiness of man- 
kind, schools and the means of education shall forever 
be encouraged"; the speeches of Governor Clinton, of 
New York, constantly ring the changes on the value of 
education for good citizenship; in the legislative debates 
on the question of establishing free schools, the argu- 
ment is always advanced that education is the bulwark 
of the poor man's political rights. 

German Secondary Education. — The general trend of 
development in the field of German secondary education 
from the beginning of the nineteenth century to the pres- 
ent time has been along the line of recognizing the utility 
of types of schools which give opportunity for special 
training. These are the classical or Gymnasien, the 
semi-classical or Real- Gymnasien, and the modern or 
Ober-Realschulen. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 59 



The following table indicates the subjects pursued 
and the hours devoted to each. By hours is meant the 
number of recitations per week for nine years (the time 
required to complete the full secondary course); as, for 
example, natural science twice a week for nine years 
would be credited with eighteen hours. 



Religion 

German and history 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

English 

History 

Geography 

Mathematics 

Natural science 

Writing 

Drawing 

Total hours in course, 



19 
26 
68 
36 
20 

17 

9 

34 



2 59 



REAL-GYM. OBER R. S 



19 
28 

49 

29 
18 

17 
II 
42 
29 

4 
16 

262 



19 

34 



47 
25 
18 

14 
47 
36 
6 
16 

262 



About one-third of the current expenses of these schools 
is met by tuition fees. 

English Secondary Education. — Secondary education in 
England during the first half of the nineteenth century 
was at a low ebb. The schools had been but slightly 
affected, if at all, by the modern demands for science, 
mathematics, modern languages, and history, but in re- 
sponse to public sentiment aroused by the reports of the 
parliamentary commissions appointed in 1861 and 1864, 
the secondary schools now have what is called a "modern 
side." This is shown by the following course of study 
of Haileybury, a public school: 



60 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



Divinity 

Latin 

Greek 

English 

Modern languages 

History 

Mathematics 

Natural science . . . 
Geography 



CLASSICAL SIDE 
6 YEARS 
HOURS 



is 

44 

33 

7 

io 
io 
3 1 



MODERN SIDE 
3 YEARS 
HOURS 



8 
17 

2 
22 

5 
27 

5 
5 



At the present time secondary education is given in 
the great public schools which are patronized by the 
upper class; grammar schools controlled by local civil 
authorities or by boards representing the donors; private 
schools, as a rule owned by the head-master; and local 
board schools, created by recent parliamentary acts and 
supported by local rates and state aid. 

French Secondary Education. — The present secondary 
school system of France has its origin in the law of May 
i, 1802, which established the communal colleges and 
the lycees. The main distinction between these schools 
is in the matter of support; the expenses of the latter are 
entirely the concern of the state, while part of the ex- 
penses of the former are met by the commune. As in 
Germany, the general trend of development has been 
along the line of giving training through special courses 
for various fields of activity, though, as in England and 
in America, the attempt to solve the problem is by giving 
a choice within the one school rather than differentiating 
types of schools. The present course of study is divided 
into two cycles, one of four years and the other of three. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 



61 



In the first cycle two courses are open for election ; in the 
first two years of the second cycle three are open, but 
choice will depend upon what preparation was received 
in the first four years; two are open in the last year, 
choice again depending upon previous preparation. The 
following is the table of hours for the seven years' work : 



French 

Latin , 

Greek (opt.) , 

Modern languages. 

Mathematics , 

Science 

History and geography. 

Ethics 

Drawing 

Writing 

Book-keeping 

Elements of law 



FIRST CYCLE, 
4 YEARS 



(A) 



(B) 



12 
26 

8 

20 

7-9 
3 

12 



19 



20 

is 

9 



6-10 



SECOND CYCLE, FIRST 2 YEARS 
(A) (B) (C) (D) 



6 

9 

10 

4 
2 

3 



2-4 



6 
7-9 

14 
2 

3 
10 

2-4 



14 

8 

6 



In Second Cycle (A) is equivalent to Classical, (B) to Latin and 
Modern Languages, (C) to Latin-Scientific, (D) to Science and Modern 
Languages. 



SECOND CYCLE, THIRD YEAR 
PHILOSOPHY MATHEMATICS 



Philosophy 

Greek 

Latin 

Modern languages 

History 

Mathematics 

Science 

Drawing 

Hygiene 



8-9 



(opt.) 
(opt.) 
(opt.) 



2 

3 

2 

5 
2 
12 lectures 



(opt.) 



3 
8 

9 

2 (opt.) 
12 lectures 



62 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Early American Schools: The Academy. — The begin- 
nings of a new movement in education in the Ameri- 
can colonies has been indicated in the discussion of 
Franklin's academy. That the Latin grammar schools 
were but slightly, if at all, affected by this movement is 
shown by the fact that college entrance requirements 
were not changed until the year 1807. Harvard at this 
time added geography to the time-honored requirements 
in Latin, Greek, and arithmetic. It was the Revolution, 
the emphasis upon the rights and equality of man, the 
growth of a middle-class, the idea that education had 
value in itself for citizenship and a wide-spread desire 
to secure it, the demand for a more practical training 
along the lines of mathematics and science, and a patri- 
otic demand for a greater emphasis upon the study of 
English, rhetoric, and public speaking that formed the 
basis for a new type of school — the academy of the nine- 
teenth century. It will be readily seen that neither the 
restricted curriculum of the Latin schools nor the narrow 
instruction of the college satisfied the demands of these 
new political and social conditions. The academy, on 
the other hand, offered a wide range of subjects — many 
of them poorly organized and poorly taught to be sure — 
and sought to give something like a well-rounded educa- 
tion to the many for a small tuition charge. From its 
preparatory nature the Latin school could not do this, 
and the college either did not appeal to or was too ex- 
pensive for the many. 

In the first part of the century the course of study in 
the academies was rather an indefinite quantity. Con- 
tinuity and grading of work was possible, of course, in 
the classics and in mathematics; but as a rule classes 
were formed in various subjects according to the demand. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS G3 

In time courses of study of from three to five years were 
formed. Usually these comprised the college prepara- 
tory course which in most academies became the stand- 
ard, the English course, the scientific course, and later 
the Latin-scientific course. For purpose of comparison, 
the curriculum of one of the best New York academies, 
that at Albany, and the curriculum of the Boston Latin 
School, both in the 50's, are given below. 

Albany: Arithmetic, algebra, architecture, astronomy, botany, 
book-keeping, chemistry, composition, conic sections, constitution of 
New York, declamation, drawing, English grammar, French, 
geography, physical geography, plane and analytic geometry, Greek, 
general history, U. S. history, hydrostatics, Latin, logic, mechanics, 
mineralogy, navigation, optics, orthography, natural philosophy, 
moral philosophy, penmanship, political economy, reading, rhet- 
oric, Roman antiquities, surveying, trigonometry, technology. 

Boston: "The rudiments of the Latin and Greek languages are 
taught, and scholars are fitted for the most respectable colleges. 
Instruction is also given in mathematics, geography, history, decla- 
mation, English grammar, composition, and in the French language." 
Quoted from the regulations of the school committee. 

The High School. — The academy, however, was not 
in the control of the people, was not accessible to the 
many, charged tuition fees, and took the boy or girl away 
from home in many cases, which necessarily added to 
the expense. Consequently we find in some of the larger 
cities that a type of school arises which is controlled and 
supported by the citizens and organically connected with 
the elementary schools. This is the beginning of our 
present high schools. The aim of the early high school 
did not differ from that of the academy. It did not con- 
cern itself with preparation for college but looked toward 



64 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

giving a free, practical, and cultural education to the 
children of the municipality. The first school of this 
type was the English High School of Boston, founded in 
1 82 1. It represents a reaction against the exclusively 
classical education of the Boston Latin School. 

In 1825 a high school for boys was opened in New 
York City. A part of the report on this school reads as 
follows: 

It should never be forgotten that the grand object of this insti- 
tution is to prepare boys for such advancement, and such pursuits in 
life, as they are destined to after leaving it. 

Free High Schools. — The high schools did not increase 
in numbers very rapidly until free school systems were 
adopted in the various States. Additional impetus was 
given to the movement by a decision, handed down in 
1872 by Judge Cooley, of Michigan, in the famous "Kal- 
amazoo Case," to the effect that taxes may be raised for 
the support of any grade of instruction provided the ma- 
jority of voters so elect. With the growth of the high 
school supported by public taxation the academy, de- 
pendent upon tuition charges, has been forced to give way. 

The Course of Study. — Like the academy, the high 
school in its early history offered a generous number of 
subjects with little or no restriction upon what should be 
taken. The results were not satisfactory and the next 
step was to form definite courses, one of which the pupil 
must choose to follow without deviation. This, too, 
proved unsatisfactory, for it led to too early specializa- 
tion. This has given rise to the various methods of 
dealing with the course of study familiar to all of us, 
i. e., free elections, free elections within certain required 
groups, required subjects supplemented by electives, etc. 



HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS 65 

The High School and the College. — The whole situa- 
tion has become complicated by the fact that in the course 
of time the high schools have entered into organic rela- 
tion with the higher institutions of learning. Probably 
the most important factor in this partial change in aim 
was the establishment of the State systems of education 
extending from the elementary school to the university. 
Naturally the demands upon the high schools of the State 
for college preparatory work were legitimate, and natu- 
rally the university authorities have been mainly inter- 
ested in the secondary school and its work on the pre- 
paratory side. Though it has never been admitted that 
the function of the high school is not primarily to fit 
boys and girls for life-work and to give them some con- 
ception of culture, yet college entrance requirements have 
the advantage of offering a definite teaching aim and a 
definite standard for evaluating the work of the school 
that is here and now — the teacher knows exactly what is 
demanded. But the teacher is not so certain of what 
preparation for life really is, particularly life in a demo- 
cratic society, and the results are checked up with the 
greatest difficulty. 

Different Types of High Schools. — The various differ- 
entiations within the school system as seen in the es- 
tablishment of commercial high schools, technical high 
schools, manual training high schools, English high 
schools, classical high schools, and the variations within 
the general course of study of the standard high schools 
which seek, as far as possible, to offer an equivalent of 
the special types just mentioned, are the results at the 
present time of the attempts to secure a working solution 
of the two demands upon the secondary schools: What 
may the universities properly require of the "people's 



66 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

colleges" in the way of entrance requirements, and how 
shall the secondary school prepare individuals for the 
practical work of life and at the same time give that in- 
sight and form those habits which shall enable them to 
employ their leisure to the best advantage for self and 
society ? 



CHAPTER IV 

PRINCIPLES AND PLANS FOR REORGANIZING 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 

Calvin Olin Davis, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

Necessity for Reorganizing School System. — The pres- 
ent plan of organizing public secondary education in the 
United States is irrational and wasteful. It can find no 
real basis in history, psychology, or logic. Neither does 
it have the support of contemporary practice in other en- 
lightened countries. In its form and administration it 
stands alone, but it is unique in ways which are open to 
severe criticism. There is a growing and insistent de- 
mand that conditions be changed, that our entire public 
school system be reorganized in the interest of economy 
of time and administration, adaptability to individual 
needs, training for specific personal aims, and extension 
of social welfare. 

If one looks to history for an explanation of the present 
system, one is forced to turn away unsatisfied. His- 
torically, even in America, secondary education has never 
till recently meant four years of school work superim- 
posed upon a required elementary course of eight or 
nine years. Nor has admission to the secondary school 
ever till recently presupposed a greater knowledge than 
a reasonable familiarity with the school arts. The 

67 



68 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

records of the colonial Latin grammar schools and of 
the old academies show this. It was not till well down 
in the nineteenth century that any noticeable departure 
from this custom was made. In 182 1, when the first 
high school in America was established, the sole terms of 
admission were ability to pass examinations in reading, 
writing, arithmetic, and English grammar. 

Lengthening of Elementary School Course. — With the 
rise of the later academies and the differentiation of the 
English course in the high school from the classical course 
the period of pre-secondary education was prolonged. 
Colleges increased their requirements for admission. 
Secondary schools, following the suggestion, became 
more exacting with the elementary schools. But the 
elementary school as then organized was unable to meet 
the demands. The elementary school year was short; 
the elementary school-teacher was poorly trained; ped- 
agogical methods were inferior. Hence annual progress 
was slow. Thus it was that two, four, six additional 
years were added to training in these school arts. For 
a period there was little uniformity, but finally the course 
eventuated in the present elementary regime of eight or 
nine years. 

Foreign Schools. — If one turns to European countries 
for suggestions there is little encouragement. Current 
practices there lend no support to the policy of post- 
poning entrance upon secondary school work until the 
completion of eight or nine years' elementary study, or 
until the youth has attained the age of fourteen or fifteen 
years. Neither do the school systems of foreign coun- 
tries limit the typical course of secondary instruction to 
four years. Germany, France, and England have, al- 
most from the very outset, provided secondary schools 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 69 

that have been organized on the basis of six, seven, eight, 
or nine year courses. Recently Japan has reorganized 
her school system upon this principle. In none of these 
countries is a youth required or expected to complete an 
eight or nine year elementary course before being ad- 
mitted to the secondary school. In none of them does 
an undifferentiated elementary course extend beyond a 
period of six years, and usually a student enters upon the 
work of the secondary schools at the age of nine or ten 
years. 

American Educational Work Wrongly Organized. — 
Again, the present mode of organizing and administer- 
ing educational work in America is psychologically ill- 
grounded. The adolescent period begins usually at about 
the age of twelve years. With the dawn of this new 
period c6me most notable changes in physical form, 
structure, and function and most decided concomitant 
psychological changes. At this period self-consciousness 
is born. The interests that formerly held dominant sway 
are cast aside. New motives stir, new aspirations fire, 
new goals beckon. Conscious logical reason begins to 
proclaim itself. The mind is no longer satisfied with 
mere empirical facts, but it demands that the facts be 
presented in their essential relations. There is also a 
restlessness and a desire for movement. Individuality 
begins its play and demands a larger circle in which to 
assert and express itself. Implicit obedience and con- 
formity to laws and rules arbitrarily imposed can no 
longer be secured. The purpose and necessity for re- 
straint must be made clear and intelligible; if not, tacit 
or open rebellion ensues. The youth's whole nature 
calls out for room — more room. 

To enforce unnatural restraints upon an adolescent is 



70 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to deaden his sensibilities, stifle his intellectual and his 
social enthusiasm, and atrophy his powers. To keep 
him under the restrictive and arbitrary discipline of the 
ordinary elementary school is to sin against nature and 
to commit an offence against the laws of social well-being. 
To employ with him the methods of instruction and 
training of the elementary schools is to provoke him to 
truancy, encourage him to evade school work, and im- 
pel him to forsake school duties altogether. The be- 
ginning of adolescence is most emphatically the begin- 
ning of the period of secondary education. As our 
schools are organized and administered to-day this fact 
is ignored. 

Thirdly, there is no reasonable basis for organizing 
our school work as it is. Reason would assert — histori- 
cal and psychological considerations aside — that the 
schools should be so organized and administered as to 
meet the needs of the greatest numbers of persons for 
whom they are nominally designed. Instead of prepar- 
ing each pupil as fully as possible for the position in 
society for which his aptitudes, interests, and resources 
make him most fit, our system forces or permits a de- 
plorable number to leave school and become, for the 
most part, either discontented misfits or else hardened, 
unaspiring, inefficient citizens. Here is a sheer loss of 
an astoundingly large per cent of the raw material during 
the process of production. Any private manufacturing 
industry that should, because of operating methods, 
lose or cast aside from its unfinished product one-tenth 
of what is lost through the maladministration of our 
school system would be forced into voluntary or invol- 
untary bankruptcy in an incredibly short time — and it 
ought to be so. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 71 

No school system, any more than any machine, can be 
operated without some loss. Nevertheless it is possible 
greatly to minimize the losses incident to the administra- 
tion of a system irrationally organized. An organization 
that needlessly and knowingly duplicates efforts; that con- 
tinues to emphasize much that is non-essential to life's 
interests and impracticable for boys and girls at the time 
the subject is presented to them; that neglects to afford 
opportunity for the discovery of real individual aptitudes 
or to stimulate and develop them when revealed; that 
permits dangerous gaps and openings to exist between the 
sections of its course; that allows no individual to be 
ranked or classified any higher than the standard made 
in respect to his smallest and most insignificant talent; 
that insists upon a perfect knowledge of the tools of the 
mind without permitting, during school hours, the em- 
ployment of those tools to any permanently useful ends; 
that incessantly drills upon forms without furnishing any 
nourishing content to fill the forms; that, in short, con- 
tinues to postpone indefinitely from day to day and year 
to year a real education and emphasizes the process of 
ever preparing for an education — such an organization 
is certainly not based on logic. Such, however, has been, 
and still is, the character of much of our so-called educa- 
tion of the elementary school in particular and of the 
high school in general. 

Origin of Present System. — The present organization 
of our public schools harks back to the days of the 
free academies which arose shortly after the close of the 
Revolutionary War. Many of these institutions offered 
a curriculum which began with the veriest elements of 
learning and ended with subjects that are now found in 
the colleges. The academies early adopted the practice 



72 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of grouping the work into departments; as, for example, 
the first primary, second primary, intermediate depart- 
ment, grammar department, academic department, and 
collegiate department. Each of these departments in- 
cluded the school work of two or three years. Inasmuch 
as the entire course was planned to occupy the time from 
about one's eighth or ninth year of age up to his eighteenth 
or twentieth year, the course came to be one of about 
ten or twelve years in length. Thus the academic work 
of two, three, or four years came to rest upon a pre-aca- 
demic study of eight or nine years. 

With the rise of public union schools the form of the 
academies was adopted almost unconsciously. So, also, 
was the nomenclature. Gradually the expression "high 
school" took the place of the "academic department," 
and the later school inherited all the traditions, ideals, 
and customs of the earlier one. Thus it was that tem- 
porary expediency, followed later by unreflecting imi- 
tation and blind conservatism, saddled upon America 
a system of public education that consists almost every- 
where of a high school of four years resting upon an 
elementary school course of eight or nine years. Thus 
it was established that the only door opening into the 
high school led out from an elementary school of eight 
or nine years' continuous tuition. There was no alterna- 
tive course offered — eight years to get ready for an educa- 
tion and then four to acquire the education, or perchance 
to prepare further for an education that was still remotely 
beyond. 

Not until recently was any attention given to individ- 
ual aptitudes and capacities. Straight ahead for at least 
one year each was obliged to go, advancing one stage 
to continue the process, or else, in case of failure, going 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 73 

drearily over the former course another year. There was 
no differentiation; all subjects were demanded of every 
pupil, whatever were his ambitions or his life's plans. 
All the work was formal, and, to the majority of students, 
devitalized, tedious, and aimless. 

Recent Attempts at Improvement. — Only within the 
past twenty years has concerted effort been made to 
improve these conditions. Dissatisfaction with the old 
order first found expression in the Report of the Com- 
mittee of Ten in 1893. An enriched curriculum, a flex- 
ible curriculum, and an articulating curriculum were 
their demands. The report also urged the extension of 
certain well-recognized secondary school subjects down 
into the elementary grades, the departmentalizing of some 
work below the high school, and a corps of better trained 
teachers employing better pedagogical methods. 

The committee through its report set up ideals. Here 
and there serious efforts were made to put the suggestions 
into practice, but in many respects improvement has been 
slow. The conviction has steadily grown, however, that 
complete reform can come only with a complete reorgan- 
ization of the school system. A six-year course for the 
elementary school and a six-year course for the high 
school is the slogan for the more recent agitations. To 
lend support to this proposal the National Education 
Association, in 1905, appointed a standing committee 
on a six-year course of study for high schools. For three 
successive years this committee has made an annual re- 
port, and sentiment is rapidly crystallizing in support of 
the above plan. 

Objections to Present System. — It may be well at once 
to present the indictment made against our present 
educational system. The counts are as follows: (1) The 



74 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

curriculum is overcrowded; (2) there are duplication and 
waste in administration; (3) there is little correlation of 
subject-matter; (4) exaggerated attention is given to 
unessential and impracticable topics; (5) many topics 
now presented have no legitimate place in any curricu- 
lum; (6) pupils are overworked; (7) the course of study 
is inflexible; (8) there is no close articulation of the 
elementary school with the high school; (9) individual 
tastes and capacities are not rightly considered; (10) 
promotions are based upon an unsound principle; (n) 
discipline is unsuited to the stage of development of the 
pupils; (12) teachers are improperly equipped; (13) 
pupils are influenced by too few different personalities; 
(14) methods of instruction are unpedagogical; (15) the 
study of many secondary subjects is postponed beyond 
the proper time for their best presentation; (16) work 
is not effectively vocational; (17) enormously large num- 
bers withdraw from school; (18) insufficient attention is 
paid to the retarded pupils and to those of superior 
ability; (19) there is not sufficient hand work; (20) spe- 
cific trade instruction is lacking; (21) the whole system 
is over-mechanized. 

This is the bill of indictment. It is being examined 
point by point by the grand jury — the people of the 
land — and a true bill is being found. The duty de- 
volves upon the experts in education to prosecute and 
to correct. 

The Seventh and Eighth Grades. — While some of the 
alleged unsatisfactory conditions are to be found through- 
out the entire system, and some few in the high school 
alone, the great plexus of evils is in the seventh and 
eighth grades. Here is the great battle-ground of edu- 
cational reform to-day. "Rearrange the work and ad- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 

ministration of the seventh and eighth grades," say the 
propagandists, "and readjust the other grades to the 
reformed plan and the more oppressive evils of the entire 
system will have been eradicated." 

Plans for Reorganization. — The reorganization and 
remodelled administration of the work of the seventh 
and eighth grades, therefore, constitutes the crux of the 
problem. The analysis of the unsatisfactory conditions 
found has given rise to the idea of redividing the pres- 
ent twelve-year course, six grades to constitute the ele- 
mentary school, and six the high school. The theory is 
that six years are amply sufficient to encompass the ele- 
mentary ground, and that the seventh and eighth grades 
should assume the character of the high school and 
adopt its forms and methods. In addition the new theory 
demands that the work of these upper six grades shall 
be reorganized throughout. What in detail should be 
the plan of reorganization thus proposed, and what ad- 
vantages and disadvantages will issue? 

Distinction Between Elementary and Secondary Edu- 
cation. — First, what constitutes elementary, and what, 
secondary education? Dewey asserts: "The aim of the 
elementary school is wrong. It should not be knowl- 
edge, but to organize the instincts and impulses of chil- 
dren into working interests and tools. The stress should 
be on methods, not results. Not that we do not want 
results, but that we get better results when we transfer the 
emphasis of attention to the problem of mental attitude 
and operation. We need to develop a certain active 
interest in truth and its allies, a certain disposition of 
inquiry, together with a command of the tools that 
make it effective, and to organize certain modes of activity 
in observation, construction, expression, and reflection. 



76 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Six years ought to be enough to accomplish this task." * 
Hanus sums it up as follows: 

" The special aims of elementary education are : (a) To 
nourish the mind of the child through the course of study 
which should comprise an orderly presentation of the 
whole field of knowledge in its elements, and to provide 
an opportunity for the exercise of all his powers, mental, 
moral, aesthetic, manual, or constructive, through good 
instruction and wise discipline; (b) to guard and pro- 
mote his normal physical health and development." 2 

Thus it appears that elementary education, besides 
promoting and strengthening one's physical health, has 
for its chief aims the opening of the mind to the entire 
world in its elements, the development of interests in 
the world and in its activities, and the fostering of desir- 
able habits of mind and body. It should emphasize 
chiefly the formal aspects of education. Its mission is 
to prepare for further school work. Its end is extra se. 
It aims not at knowledge itself, but at supplying the tools 
of the mind and at inculcating attitudes and habits of 
mind that will enable the individual later to pursue 
knowledge and industry. As Dewey says, "Six years 
ought to be enough to accomplish this task." Recent 
experiments demonstrate that, in many cases at least, 
they are. 

What now is secondary education? To this question 
Hanus replies: "The secondary school should especially 
promote the discovery and development of each pupil's 
dominant interests and powers; and further, it should 
seek to render these interests and powers subservient to 
life's serious purposes, and also to the possibility of par- 

1 School Review, vol. i, p. 18, 1903. 

-"'Educational Aims and Educational Values," p. 17. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 

ticipation in the refined pleasures of life." He adds: 
"The serious purposes of life are first, self-support, or, 
when this is unnecessary, some worthy form of service; 
second, intelligent active participation in human affairs. 
. . . The refined pleasures of life are found in the ability 
to participate with intelligence and appreciation in the 
intellectual and aesthetic interests of cultivated men." 1 

E. E. Brown, former United States Commissioner of 
Education, declares the "business of secondary educa- 
tion" is "to raise all subjects which it touches to the 
plane of science by bringing all into the point of view 
of organizing principles." In another place he says that 
the purpose of secondary education is " to seek an under- 
standing of the living growing persons who go to school 
and to treat them in a way to promote their healthy 
growth. . . . This is on one side leading toward individu- 
alism; it demands free election of studies and individu- 
alized processes of instruction. On the other side it shows 
how dependent the pupil is on society. Neither the fu- 
ture nor wholly the present are our concern, but both." 2 

The aim of secondary education is conceived by Lid- 
deke as "an elementary knowledge of facts, truths, and 
laws of relation in the domain of science, history, gov- 
ernment, and literature; a fuller development of loyalty 
to the bettering influences, culminating in due time in 
seriousness of purpose; last and most important, depth 
of insight, sanity of judgment, and the power of adapt- 
ing means to ends." 3 

Here, then, is the distinguishing characteristic of 
secondary education: It is that education which lays 

1 Ibid., p. Si. 

-'"Tendencies in Secondary Education," School Review, vol. 9, p. 4.(6. 

3 School Review, vol. 12, p. 636, 1904. 



78 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

stress upon gaining a systematically arranged content 01 
knowledge, and that seeks first to discover for each 
pupil his real dominant interests and aptitudes; and, 
secondly, so to train and develop these incipient powers 
that each may put into life as much social service as pos- 
sible, and simultaneously derive from life as much per- 
sonal satisfaction as may be. Trained individuality — 
that is the end and aim of the secondary schools; but a 
trained individuality that ever recognizes these princi- 
ples: that individual progress and happiness are always 
dependent upon the progress and happiness of all the 
other members of the social group, that whatever serves 
the best interests of the social whole serves at the same 
time the best interests of the individuals who compose 
that whole, and that the distinguishing characteristics of 
individuality are a trained and accurate judgment and 
a vigorous persistent will. Active social co-operation, 
clear judgment, and effective execution are, however, 
produced solely through the repeated exercise of these 
incipient powers. Hence the prime function of the 
secondary school is to afford abundant opportunities for 
the development of these processes. 

Result of Recognizing the Distinction. — The realiza- 
tion of these principles demands, as previously suggested, 
that the high school curriculum be extensive in scope and 
rich in content; that the subject-matter be so organized 
and presented as to reveal its essential interrelations; 
that the administration of the school be so directed as to 
give opportunity for self-discovery and self-development, 
and that such agencies and methods be employed as will 
stimulate to some worthy form of social service and fit 
each individual, at least in a general way, to become an 
efficient worker in his chosen field. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 79 

Proposed Changes in Organization. — To accomplish 
just these ends is the purpose of the present agitations 
looking to a modification of the public school system. 
Moreover, there can be little doubt that such a reorgani- 
zation is at hand and that it is about to adopt the essential 
features of the equal division arrangement of grades. 
The six year high school is not an unknown institution 
to-day, 1 but heretofore, for the most part, it has arisen 
by extending the scope of the work upward to include 
two additional years, and has left the elementary grades 
unaffected. The present movement seeks to extend the 
scope downward, and is being stimulated by current re- 
forms made in European countries and in Japan. Such 
a plan seems feasible, just, and advantageous. Under it 
the first six grades will constitute the universal school. 
In the second six years differentiated courses leading to 
various goals will exist side by side. Here the scope of 
the work will be as wide as human interests, but the 
principle of individual election of subjects will, to a 
considerable degree, have to be established. Here will 
begin the training in choice, the training of the judg- 
ment and the practical will, but obviously no individual 
should at the outset be given carte blanche in his elec- 
tions. Power and strength come from the gradual ex- 
ercise of independence, from choices supervised through- 
out the entire course. 

Hence, from the start provision should be made for at 
least jive distinct groups of pupils. First, there will be 
those whose abilities, ambitions, and resources will lead 

1 In 1909 twenty-two cities, distributed over twelve different States, 
professed to have their high schools organized on the basis of six years. — 
" Report of the Committee on a Six Year Course of Study," Proc. N. E. A ., 
1909, p. 498. 



SO HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

them not only to aim at completing the full high school 
course of six years, but also at attaining a college educa- 
tion as well. Secondly, there will be a fairly large class 
whose scholastic interests and ambitions will lead them to 
pursue systematic study no further than high school grad- 
uation, but who, nevertheless, may, without hardship, 
defer the choice of a vocation and the training therefor 
until after graduation. A third group will be composed 
of those who are enabled to complete the high school 
course, but whose circumstances necessitate the entrance 
upon a vocation immediately upon leaving school. These 
must, therefore, receive their systematic vocational in- 
struction, if at all, before leaving the high school. 

A fourth class will be those who may continue their 
schooling a year or two beyond the compulsory school 
age, but who probably will not complete the entire course. 
These, like those in class three, must obtain whatever 
practical training and vocational insight they are to re- 
ceive while yet in the public schools, and must obtain 
this training at a relatively early stage. Finally, there 
will be a fifth class, a very large class, who will leave 
school at the end of the compulsory school age and go at 
once into the industries. This class in the past has re- 
ceived least consideration. In the newer regime its mem- 
bers will be put on a parity with all the other classes, equal 
educational opportunities for every individual in the state 
being a practical ideal. 

New Arrangement of High School Courses. — This 
grouping suggests that the work of the newly constructed 
high school must correlatively be organized into at least 
rive fundamental courses of study. These are: 

(i) The College Preparatory Course, offering consider- 
able work in English, foreign languages, mathematics, 



' REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 81 

science, history, manual training, and other academic 
branches. 

(2) The General Course, affording opportunity to ex- 
plore many fields of learning, but wisely requiring con- 
centrated attention upon at least one of them. In this 
course would also naturally fall subjects in applied arts 
for girls, and domestic science. 

(3) The Commercial Course, laying emphasis upon the 
various branches that relate peculiarly to business and to 
commercial interests and administration, but not neglect- 
ing the branches essential to a broad general outlook. 

(4) The Short Business or Clerkship Course, giving an 
opportunity to such as demand it to fit themselves for 
positions as clerks, stenographers, and secretaries within 
the maximum period of four years, and enabling them 
thus to complete their schooling at the end of the tenth 
grade. 

(5) The Industrial (or Agricultural) Course. This 
course would doubtless in most cities have to be differ- 
entiated into four sub-courses, viz.: 

(a) General industrial work for boys, giving a training 
in general mechanics for those whose aim is to work in 
factories with machinery. 

(b) General industrial work for girls, a course co-ordi- 
nate with the general industrial course for boys. 

(c) Trades instruction for boys, giving instruction and 
training to such as will own their own tools and work for 
themselves. Here would be found such instruction as 
blacksmithing, laundering, and tailoring. 

(d) Trades instruction for girls, correlative with the 
trades course for boys. Here would be taught millinery, 
dress-making, library work, nursing, cigar making, and 
similar vocations. 



82 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Place of Vocational Instruction. — This arrangement of 
courses frankly recognizes vocational instruction as hav- 
ing a legitimate place in the public school system. Be- 
lieving, as we must, in the democratic principle that no 
person can ever acquire too much education of the right 
kind, and believing, further, that in a democratic state 
every member should be given equal opportunities to 
secure an education commensurate with his aptitudes 
and ambitions, we must of necessity believe that it is 
incumbent upon the state and to its own best interests 
that it provide a system of education that shall appeal, 
through its varied subject-matter, to every class of in- 
dividuals. Not to do this would savor of aristocracy, 
not democracy. 

New Methods of Organization. — If the work of public 
secondary education is to begin with the seventh grade, 
certain changes in the administration of the schools will 
be necessitated. There are four distinct methods of 
organization and administration that may be employed. 
Each offers some unique advantages. Each lends itself 
to adoption in toto, or in combination with the essential 
elements of each of the others. These four methods are: 

(i) Continue the external form of the schools as it is 
to-day, but introduce into the seventh and eighth grades 
the principles now obtaining in the administration of the 
high school. 

(2) Bring the seventh and eighth grades into the high 
school building, and organize and administer all work 
above the sixth grade as a unit, both respecting external 
form and internal operations. 

(3) Make a complete differentiation of schools and of 
subject-matter from the very beginning of the seventh 
grade. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 83 

(4) Group the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades by 
themselves as a junior high school, and the tenth, eleventh, 
and twelfth grades by themselves as a senior high school. 

The First Method. — The first method leaves the ele- 
mentary schools outwardly in much the same condition 
as to-day. Each would continue to serve the general 
educational needs of the district in which it is located. 
Pupils would be expected to complete the course of study 
in the neighborhood school, and then, if they so chose, to 
pass to the high school building. Nevertheless, under 
the new plan of organization the general principles of 
administration now found in the high school would be 
carried down into the seventh and eighth grades of the 
ward schools. Here would be provided a modified form 
of departmental teaching, an enriched curriculum, a 
closer approach to the idea of student responsibility, 
greater flexibility in promotion, and other practices char- 
acteristic of secondary education. 

A system of this kind is feasible and advisable in small 
towns and cities that are relatively homogeneous in char- 
acter and interests. In communities composed of hetero- 
geneous classes possessed of widely differing interests, 
the plan offers difficulties. If, however, these classes are 
somewhat segregated geographically, and if the popula- 
tion of the town is such as to require the employment of 
several elementary school buildings, most of the obstacles 
can readily be overcome. The solution obviously will be 
to differentiate the work among the seventh and eighth 
grades of the various elementary schools. In each school 
would naturally be found all of the fundamental subjects 
of study, but beyond these each school might well be or- 
ganized so as to lead to a more or less definite goal. Thus, 
in the seventh and eighth grades of one building, the 



84 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

preacademic subjects may be emphasized; in a second 
building elementary commercial studies may constitute 
the centre of work, and in a third building attention may 
be given largely to industrial training. 

Naturally, this reorganization of the work of the seventh 
and eighth grades would require some correlative changes 
in the organization and administration of the upper four 
grades. Close articulation would be essential. Other 
adjustments would also be necessitated. The problems, 
however, which arise here are precisely the problems that 
will arise in connection with one of the other plans for 
reorganization and may be considered later. It is clear, 
though, that this entire first plan is full of objections. It 
is a makeshift at best. In homogeneous communities of 
small size it is workable; in heterogeneous communities 
of larger size it is cumbrous and awkward. Its only 
claim for consideration is that it is economical. 

The Second Method. — The second scheme for organiz- 
ing the new type of school is to segregate all pupils above 
the sixth grade in one school building, the high school, 
and there organize the work in several parallel courses. 
This plan merely takes the seventh and eighth grades out 
of their present setting and merges them with the present 
high school. They thereby are brought fully under the 
principles of administration dominating in present-day 
secondary education. Departmental teaching, limited elec- 
tion of studies, scientific methods of instruction, a freer 
spirit of regulation and control, all are to be henceforth 
the birthright of the seventh and eighth grade students as 
they are at present of the pupils of the four upper grades. 

This second arrangement is adapted to the conditions 
and needs of towns of moderate size. Wherever one high 
school building can accommodate all pupils above the 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 85 

sixth grade the plan is highly commendable, as it affords 
the maximum of benefit at the minimum of expense. 
Towns of 8,000 inhabitants or less can, with almost no 
difficulties, reorganize their school systems on this basis. 
The efficiency of the school thus reorganized will many 
times repay the small additional expense entailed. 

The Third Method. — In the third alternative scheme a 
differentiation in aim, in subject-matter, and in buildings 
is implied at the outset. From the sixth grade the ways 
diverge. All school work beyond this is organized, not in 
separate and distinct courses within a single school, but 
in separate and distinct schools themselves. The num- 
ber and variety of these is obviously to be determined by 
the demands of the pupils. This plan will best serve the 
interests of the large city. Ordinarily, in its complete 
organization, it will call for seven distinct types of schools. 
The number of each type required for any given system 
will depend, of course, on local conditions. These seven 
general types are: First, the college preparatory school; 
second, the engineering school (the manual training 
school); third, the high school of practical arts for girls; 
fourth, the high school of commerce; fifth, the business 
school; sixth, the trade school for boys, and seventh, the 
trade school for girls. In some sections there will be 
need for a school of still different type — the agricultural 
high school. 

Little adverse criticism directed against this system is 
possible. If provision be made for the free choice of the 
type of school to be attended; if attendance on classes in 
two or more schools by the same pupils be permitted, or, 
on application, elected subjects be incorporated in the 
curriculum of each school; and if, finally, the daily trans- 
portation of pupils to and from school be borne by the 



86 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

municipality whenever necessary, this plan is desirable. 
Whatever may be the intrinsic merits of the other plans, 
for cities like Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, 
St. Louis, and San Francisco they are impracticable. 
Indeed, for any city of 100,000 inhabitants or more this 
third plan, with slight modifications, is alone feasible. 
The charge that any system of schools which seeks to 
differentiate the work in separate buildings is undemo- 
cratic, tending to introduce class distinction, is beside the 
mark. Providing for individual aptitudes and interests 
under separate roofs is in essence no different from pro- 
viding for individual aptitudes and interests in separate 
courses of study under the same roof. To-day the field 
of knowledge is wide; the demand for specialized train- 
ing is insistent. Practically the two interests cannot be 
made to coincide. Differentiation of some sort is inevi- 
table. It is immaterial whether this take place between 
buildings, between courses in the same building, or be- 
tween recitation classes in the same room. 

The Fourth Method. — The fourth scheme of reorgani- 
zation calls for the division of the six high school grades 
into two equal parts, each division to occupy a building 
by itself and to be styled, respectively, the junior high 
school and the senior high school. This plan seemingly 
possesses many advantages for cities and towns ranging 
in population from 8,000 to 1 00,000 inhabitants. 

Since, in the nature of the case, the numbers enrolled 
in the senior school will always be smaller than those in 
the junior school, more ample provisions must necessarily 
be made for the latter. In cities in which one school of 
each class will meet the needs, it seems advisable that the 
two buildings shall be located in close proximity. Where 
this is done, the more advanced school will continuously 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 87 

serve as a tangible, visible stimulus to the pupils of the 
lower school Under this arrangement, the work of the 
junior high school will include one grade that will fall 
beyond the limits of the compulsory attendance law. 
Since the work of this year, however, will be organized as 
a homogeneous portion of a continuous course, the ten- 
dency of the pupils to withdraw from school at the end 
of the compulsory period will be greatly minimized. 
Moreover, the ideals and spirit dominating the work of 
the senior school will, to a greater or less degree, be carried 
over into the junior school. If, in addition, a close artic- 
ulation be established between the courses of the two 
schools, and if no special official recognition be given to 
those who have finished the compulsory school course 
and no "graduating exercises" be held at that time, it is 
safe to assume that many, who would otherwise abandon 
school at this period, will be encouraged to continue their 
work, not only to the end of the junior school course, but 
on into the senior high school. It seems certain that this 
idea is destined to become popular. Indeed, it is already 
in successful operation in several cities, notably Berkeley, 
California, and Columbus, Ohio, and other cities are seri- 
ously considering its adoption. 

In many towns in which a single senior high school will 
amply serve the needs, a single junior high school will not 
do so. In these cities a modified plan, incorporating the 
usable elements from each of the other three plans, will 
be necessitated; that is, two or more junior high schools, 
offering similar or differentiated work, as local interests 
may dictate, may be required. Where this is the case, 
convenience will doubtless demand their distribution in 
the various sections of the districts. Each of these four 
plans possesses peculiar advantages for different types of 



88 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

cities. The dominating principle is, however, the same, 
and by interpreting and applying this to the particular 
conditions, equally meritorious and efficient systems may 
be secured. 

Equipment of Buildings.— Every school building — the 
junior high school, senior high school, and the inde- 
pendent high school — should be provided with assembly 
halls, gymnasiums, class rooms, libraries, laboratories, art 
rooms, museums, and conservatories. Every junior high 
school, every elementary school used by the seventh and 
eighth grades, and every differentiated high school offer- 
ing work in the manual arts or in the trades should, in 
addition, possess ample facilities for much handwork for 
both boys and girls. All schools should be provided with 
out-of-door recreation grounds or athletic fields, supplied 
with all necessary apparatus, and presided over by skilled 
directors of sports. 

Supervision of Elections. — The administration of the 
work within any of these schools need not differ from the 
administration to-day employed in the best four-year 
high schools. The principle of large individual election 
of studies must, of necessity, pretty generally prevail. 
Certain fundamental branches may rightly be required 
in every course, and in almost every grade in the course. 
For the rest, youthful judgment should be supervised, 
guided, and directed. 

Time may well be taken at the beginning of every 
school year to consult seriously and sympathetically with 
every pupil respecting his aims, ambitions, and choice of 
studies. For this purpose an advisory committee should 
be formed for every single individual. By this com- 
mittee the curriculum of every pupil should be analyzed 
and, if necessary, remodelled. As members of this com- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 89 

mittee should invariably be found the following persons: 
(i) The student himself, who should be encouraged to give 
free expression to his ambitions, purposes, and likes; (2) 
the parent, parents, or guardian of the student, who should 
make known the parental desires, the resources at the 
student's service, and the co-operation that may be ex- 
pected from the home; (3) the pupil's former teacher, or 
teacher-adviser, who should be able to present a fair judg- 
ment of his abilities, aptitudes, and habits; (4) the pro- 
spective teacher, or teacher-adviser, who should know the 
difficulties that lie before him and should be able to advise 
respecting them, and (5) the principal of the school, who, 
as moderator, should harmonize the conflicting or varied 
considerations and direct the boy along the course best 
suited to his needs. The administration of a project of 
this kind will require time, patience, and judgment, but 
it can be made of inestimable value. If necessary, the 
whole month of August (or late June and early July) 
should be devoted to this work rather than that it should 
not be done at all, and adequate special compensation 
should be provided for such services. 

Importance of Departmental Teaching. — In each type 
of the newly organized secondary schools departmental 
teaching should invariably be provided for every grade. 
The reasons for this change are obvious. No teacher, 
however well adapted for her work by nature, or however 
well prepared by training, can teach a variety of subjects 
equally well. There must be concentration of effort. 
The really efficient teacher requires time for intensive 
and extensive preparation for each lesson, and energy for 
vitalizing class-room procedure, for disposing of routine 
duties, and for inspirational reading, social intercourse, 
and relaxation. These means to continued growth arc 



90 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

imperative for all. The more experienced and skilful a 
teacher becomes, the more fully are these truths recog- 
nized and the more completely are they realized. Trained 
skill alone can never produce a teacher of highest merit 
and power, but for successful teaching of adolescents 
specialized training and expert knowledge are absolutely 
essential. Before the inquiring critical mind of the de- 
veloping youth no teacher can stand firmly who cannot 
inspire pupils with the confidence which a mastery of 
the situation affords. Departmental teaching in the 
seventh and eighth grades can insure the high standard of 
scholarship which is an obvious professional necessity. 

By departmentalizing this work, other highly desirable 
qualities in teachers can be assured. By making the 
salaries of the teachers of these two grades from ten to 
twenty per cent higher than the salaries of the teachers 
of any other grades in the system, qualified candidates 
will soon be available. The new recruit, the mediocre 
teacher of experience, and the cold, egoistic specialists 
may be tolerated on the instructional staffs of youths 
whose school habits have been somewhat definitely fixed, 
whose course in school has been pretty clearly determined, 
and who have acquired a fair degree of independence, 
judgment, and self-direction. But from junior high 
schools these types of instructors should be rigidly barred. 
Many pupils will be lost to the schools during the ado- 
lescent age under the best of conditions, but inspiring 
teachers, much handwork, and much physical exercise 
and play should reduce the loss to a minimum. 

There are additional advantages to be derived from 
this departmentalization. First, such an arrangement 
permits pupils daily to come under the influence of several 
dominating personalities. Child nature is extremely im- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 91 

pressionable. One all-powerful influence at this time 
may set the form beyond reshaping, whereas the influence 
of several personalities with their inevitable elements of 
difference will tend to harmonious development. One- 
sidedness in early youth, however noble the controlling 
characteristic, is undesirable. 

The departmental organization likewise helps to satisfy 
the inherent impulse for movement. Pupils at this stage 
demand change of environment, change of bodily posture, 
and variety of teaching methods. Under the depart- 
mental system the passage of pupils from room to room, 
the changes in environment found in those rooms, and the 
differences in voice, manner, and methods of the several 
teachers provide needed variation in school life. Under 
it a freer discipline than exists at present is possible. To- 
day when one division of the pupils is required to be inde- 
pendently occupied at their seats while a second section 
is engaging the immediate attention of the teacher, an 
approach to military discipline is inevitable. This dam- 
per on social intercourse frequently stifles interest and 
checks natural development. 

Self-Activity the True Principle of Growth. — The true 
principle of growth has, in theory, long been recognized 
as that of self-activity. The true aim of any school is 
gradually to transform the dependent being into the inde- 
pendent, self-directive individual. Independence comes, 
however, from the exercise of power, not from its repres- 
sion. Prolonged dependence is destructive of personal 
judgment and personal initiative. Under a system in 
which this principle holds sway there can be no sponta- 
neous nor perfect growth. Activity here receives its 
stimulus from without; and weakness, not strength; tim- 
idity, not courage; a tendency to uniformity, not indi- 
viduality, ensue. The exaggerated employment of this 



92 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

principle accounts in no small degree for that abuse of 
freedom witnessed so often among boys and girls as soon 
as they emerge from the system. They are wholly inca- 
pable of wisely assuming responsibilities when external 
authority is removed. The new plan offers facilities for 
obviating these evils of discipline. Under it much of the 
free spirit, order, and motivation that characterize adult 
social intercourse can be introduced, and gradually the 
pupil may be trained in self-direction. Social co-opera- 
tion becomes the key word of the system. 

Advantages of New Plan. — Again, the proposed scheme 
of reorganization will render the administration of school 
work much more flexible. To-day the administration of 
the seventh and eighth grades is too often criminally rigid. 
Promotion is commonly made by grade, or half-grade at 
the best. Little account is taken of the peculiar interests 
and talents of any pupil. Pupils who fail to attain the 
required standard in one subject are declared to have 
failed in all, and are forced to repeat the work of the en- 
tire grade, or half-grade. The youth of exceptional ver- 
satility and capacity is kept back with the rest. Such a 
process is deadening to any full-blooded individual. An 
aenemic, timid, plodding boy may accept the unjust re- 
quirement without question, but he is injured neverthe- 
less. The repetition of a dull routine from which all zest 
of novelty has been taken merely intensifies his subservi- 
ence and stifles his curiosity. On the other hand, the vig- 
orous, individualistic, active boy recognizes the injustice 
and resents it. External force alone can then longer keep 
him in school, and even so, initiative will have been 
blunted, interest cooled, and accomplishments reduced. 

Under the proposed plan promotions can be made semi- 
annually or quarterly by subject. Moreover, in large 
schools with many sections in the same subject it permits 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 93 

the organization of classes for the supernormal (the A 
section), the normal (the B section), and the subnormal 
(the C section). By setting the class periods of the three 
sections all at the same hour transference from one sec- 
tion to another will be easy. Thus, for illustration, a 
pupil especially apt in mathematics, good in history, but 
of mediocre ability in English could enter the A section 
in the first, the B section in the second, and the C sec- 
tion in the third. His continued membership in any of 
these sections would be dependent on his progress in that 
particular subject. In this manner there would be nei- 
ther undue advancement nor unjust retardation. Each 
pupil would proceed through the course as rapidly as his 
capacities and efforts would permit, or as slowly as his 
limitations necessitated. 

In the lengthened school course many really secondary 
subjects can be begun one or two years earlier than is 
now generally possible, and can be continued till they will 
have yielded fuller benefits. Ancient languages, especially 
Latin; modern foreign languages; the simpler processes 
of algebra and geometry; elementary science; element- 
ary sociology; political economy and civil government, 
and, probably, the elements of other so-called advanced 
subjects, can best be begun in the seventh grade. Edu- 
cational psychologists and many foreign authorities assure 
us that the best time for beginning the study of these 
branches is at the dawning of the adolescent period. In 
England and Germany boys commonly begin the study 
of algebra and geometry as early as their eleventh or 
twelfth year, and seem to find no insurmountable diffi- 
culties. In fact, they often come to possess a firmer grasp 
of the subjects than do the majority of the graduates of 
our high schools. Beginning the study of foreign lan- 
guage in the early stages of adolescence is especially desir- 



94 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

able. Then the language can be taken up naturally, as 
a native youth would begin it. Then simple conversa- 
tion and the reading and writing of simple familiar words 
and sentences can constitute the methods of attack, where- 
as the sensitive self-consciousness of later life renders such 
a procedure difficult. 

At this early age, too, pupils are intensely interested in 
the larger and more generally familiar questions of nat- 
ural science, sociology, and political economy. This is 
the period for presenting to them the entire world in its 
elements and for inculcating in them desirable habits of 
reaction toward its various forms and institutions. Here 
is the proper time for introducing an elemental knowledge 
of sex and sex hygiene. Here properly belong also the 
beginnings of vocational instruction, and, for many, the 
beginnings of vocational training itself. Indeed, the only 
credentials of eligibility any subject should be forced to 
bring should be : Will its incorporation in the curriculum 
meet a real demand or fill a felt need ? 

Guiding Principles in Administering Reorganized 
School. — What shall be the guiding principles for admin- 
istering a reorganized school of this kind ? The answer 
is in part implied in reasserting that there shall be an en- 
riched curriculum, with a wide range of elective subjects, 
and departmentalized grade work. In addition the old- 
time recitation period will require modification. In the 
past too great an emphasis has been placed on memoriz- 
ing facts, whereas the function of the school is to develop 
mental power and to habituate the possessor to applying 
this power to serviceable ends. There will always be a 
place for the drill lesson, but it must no longer be per- 
mitted to monopolize school work. Preceding or supple- 
menting it must be frequent study recitations in which the 
subject is developed and mastered under the supervision 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 95 

of the teacher. Simultaneously or consecutively ample 
opportunities must be provided for converting this knowl- 
edge into faculty. No longer should impression be di- 
vorced from expression. 

Increased Burden of Teacher. — All this implies that 
henceforth a much greater burden of the school work must 
be borne by the teacher. "Hearing lessons recited" will 
constitute but a minor function. Henceforth the teacher 
must teach, and .teaching calls for an inexhaustible supply 
of resourcefulness, tact, and knowledge. Henceforth cor- 
relation and vitalization must be fetishes of the class room. 
Instruction, questioning, criticism, exposition, sugges- 
tion, example — all must be employed, but none of them 
to the detriment of pupil initiative and co-operation. 
Moreover, while correlation with kindred or similar facts 
of other school branches is excellent, constant correlation 
of school work with the pupil's life experiences is indis- 
pensable. 

The Curriculum. — The curriculum of the six year school 
must obviously include fundamental subjects required of 
all pupils and optional studies open to individual election. 
What branches shall be constants and what variables must 
of necessity depend somewhat upon local conditions and 
on the specific aims of the school. Two general principles 
should, however, be operative everywhere. First, each 
pupil leaving school, at whatever stage, must be given a 
systematic, many-sided, functioning education that is im- 
perfect only in the sense that it is incomplete; and sec- 
ondly, he must have received in addition a somewhat 
special training in a limited range of knowledge or activ- 
ity. That is, each pupil must have a somewhat sharp 
focal point in school life and a relatively extended mar- 
ginal boundary radiating from it. 



96 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Such an ideal, therefore, calls for a clearer classification 
of subject-matter. The departments of knowledge that 
should find place in the new programme of studies are : 
i. English language and literature. 

2. History, civics, and geography. 

3. Ethics and sociology. 

4. Mathematics. 

5. Ancient foreign languages. 

6. Modern foreign languages. 

7. Physical and biological sciences. 

8. Physiology and hygiene. 

9. Business administration and commerce. 

10. Commercial work. 

11. Mechanical and free-hand drawing. 

12. Manual training (for boys). 

13. Home economics, domestic science, and art (for 

girls). 

14. Music and fine art. 

15. Voice culture, public speaking, and dramatics. 

16. Physical training. 

17. Agriculture and horticulture. 

18. Industrial training. 

19. Elementary philosophy. 

This curriculum, as extensive in scope as that of many 
a college, is advocated because the theory frankly recog- 
nizes the six-year high school as a people's college. With- 
in many of the departments here mentioned should also 
be found a further recognition of the fact that there must 
be a differentiation of content and of methods to meet the 
needs of the various social classes. Thus, the work in 
English language and literature should certainly be some- 
what different for the boy preparing for college and for 
the one pursuing a commercial course or for the one seek- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 97 

ing to prepare himself for a particular industry or trade. 
The same is true of mathematics, history, foreign lan- 
guages, and other branches. This differentiation may 
come (in small schools it must come) in the regular class- 
room work itself. It, however, may come within divisions 
or sections of pupils pursuing the same branch of study 
in the same school; or, finally the differentiation, as for- 
merly suggested, may come between schools. 

In the seventh and eighth grades each pupil's course of 
study should include: (i) English; (2) history, civics, and 
geography; (3) ethics and sociology; (4) physiology and 
hygiene; (5) mathematics (including arithmetic, algebra, 
and geometry); (6) elementary science; (7) manual train- 
ing (or household economics, domestic science, and arts) ; 
(8) music and fine art; (9) drawing; (10) voice culture, 
public speaking, and dramatics; and (n) physical train- 
ing. In addition opportunity should be given for one or 
two or three elective studies. 

Obviously a course of study of this scope will require 
the abandonment of the old-time practice of devoting five 
class periods per week to each subject. Indeed, edu- 
cational theory advocates this. Psychological investiga- 
tion has clearly shown the desirability of intense but non- 
continuous mental stimulation. Under it there is secured 
an economy of mental effort, a greater variety and per- 
manence of associations, more mental discipline, and a 
clearer and a more adequate comprehension of the sub- 
ject. This fact is peculiarly true with respect to all 
studies that call for considerable perspective. Time is 
required for assimilation. By alternating periods of rest 
with periods of intensified attack, associations are multi- 
plied and correlations strengthened. European peoples 
have for years acted upon this principle. 



98 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Study Under Supervision. — Correspondingly this change 
in hours of recitation demands a lengthened school day. 
Home study, as it is now planned and administered in 
America, is not assured, effective, or economical. The 
proper place for learning lessons is in the school under the 
supervision of trained experts, not in the home amidst 
confusion with little or no co-operation or aid. Rela- 
tively few adults possess the capacity and energy to sit 
down and apply themselves to mental tasks that require 
undivided attention and individual effort through a long 
period of time. The immature youth cannot be expected 
to do so. 

The great majority of one's ideas, habits, and feelings 
are prompted by force of suggestion, example, and instruc- 
tion. Original thought and uninspired initiative are al- 
most unknown. It follows that the greater the oppor- 
tunity for study under expert supervision, with this fund 
of suggestions, examples, expositions, the greater will be 
the progress made. A school day that affords two or three 
hours for study of this kind is much to be desired. In- 
deed, an academic day extending from 8.30 a. m. till 4 p. m. 
(with a noon intermission of moderate length) seems to be 
feasible and desirable. In addition to this a recreation 
day extending from 4 to 5.30, in which supervised phys- 
ical training and athletic sports shall be required of all, 
constitutes a workable ideal. Under such a system home 
study can be eliminated or at least reduced to a minimum. 

Suggestive Course of Study. — An acceptance of the 
salient principles above suggested will lead to the adop- 
tion for our reorganized secondary school of a course of 
study that is at the same time extensive, intensive, and 
practical. Such a suggestive course of study is herewith 
presented. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 



99 



A SUGGESTED PROGRAMME OF STUDIES FOR A 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL 



i. English and Literature 

2. History, Civics, and Geog. 

3. Ethics and Sociology. . . . 

4. Mathematics: • Arith- 

metic, Algebra,Geom. 
and Trigonometry.. . 

5. Ancient Languages: 

(a) Latin 

(b) Greek 

6. Modern Foreign Lan- 

guages: (a) German. . 

(b) French 

(c) Spanish 

7. Phys. and Biological Sci. 

8. Physiology and Hygiene. 

9. Manual Train, (for boys) 

10. Home Economics, Do- 

mestic Science and 
Arts (for girls) 

11. Business Administration 

and Commerce 

12. Commercial Work 

Mechanical and Free- 
hand Drawing 

Music and Fine Arts . . . 

Voice Culture, Public 
Speaking, Dramatics . 

Physical Training 

Agriculture and Horti- 
culture 

Industrial Training 

Elementary Philosophy. 



*3 



10 



■''2 



*a 



28I 



HOURS PER WEEK 



*4 
*3 

*2 



26J 



i7t 



4t 



3 

3 
2 

|S 

f8 



t6 

4 
fio 

4 
2 

1 
2 

t8 
t8 



°x 



ts 

1 

t8 

t6 

4 
fio 

4 
2 



ts 

2 



ot 



16 

11 

32 

7 

,u 

3° 

20 

40 



< s 



8, 

in 



* Required subjects. t Double periods with laboratory work. 

t Indicates elective subjects may be added. 



100 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Advantages and Disadvantages of New Plan Compared. 
— These, then, constitute the salient motives, principles, 
and plans for reorganizing the high school in America. 
The newer ideal possesses many improvements and ad- 
vantages over the present four-year school. Does it also 
offer difficulties and disadvantages ? Some, but these are 
of little weight compared with the benefits to be derived 
from the adoption of the reconstructed plan. 

First, the reorganization of the school system, as sug- 
gested, will require some additional expenditure, both at 
the transition stage and afterward in administration and 
maintenance. Well equipped, well administered high 
schools cost more than elementary schools. But the in- 
creased benefits (if we trust psychology, pedagogy, and 
experience) are well worth the extra burden. What in- 
creased tax levy can outweigh even one superior boy who 
may thus be discovered, aroused, and moulded for large 
social service? Penurious economy in school work is 
false economy. There is no product America produces 
that is so valuable as its trained boys and girls. Many 
of the weaknesses and inefficiencies of our schools to-day 
are traceable directly to the stupid parsimony of the school 
boards, and to hazy conceptions of school administration. 

Moreover, no school should inaugurate this reorgani- 
zation abruptly. By incorporating one element at a time 
as rapidly as circumstances will permit, the entire ideal 
can, in a relatively short period, be actualized. Hun- 
dreds of schools have already taken one or more steps 
in this general direction. Departmental teaching in the 
seventh and eighth grades is no longer uncommon. The 
organization of the eighth grade with the high school, 
making it conform to these ideals and regulations, is an 
accomplished fact in many cities and towns. An en- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 101 

riched curriculum for the seventh and eighth grades is to 
day somewhat general, while promotions by subjects and 
extra-term promotions are frequent. 

Although the transition from the old organization to the 
new is, at least for our cities and towns, no difficult mat- 
ter, in rural districts the facilities for thus reorganizing 
the school system are not so good. Even here, however, 
the obstacles are not insurmountable. The old-type dis- 
trict school is obsolete in theory if not in fact. It once 
served a social need and served it moderately well. In 
few compact communities to-day is it either economical or 
adequate. Consolidated schools have in many States taken 
its place, and no one who studies the situation carefully 
can doubt that the consolidated or township school can 
advantageously be established in many other districts. 

In consolidated or township schools an organization in 
harmony with the plan recommended could be put into 
operation with no greater difficulty than in towns or cities. 
Indeed, the consolidated school becomes virtually a town 
school. Transportation of pupils at public expense has 
already been provided in numerous instances. It works 
no greater hardship upon pupils, and places no greater 
burden of taxation upon citizens than the old-time dis- 
trict schools. Consolidated schools (even as they exist 
to-day) are vastly superior in efficiency to those they have 
displaced. 

Nevertheless it would be unwise for each consolidated 
school to offer a curriculum as extensive in scope as the 
best city schools may well do. Here, as in the towns, 
differentiation must be employed. One consolidated 
school may, however, emphasize agriculture, an adjacent 
township school may lay stress on commercial branches, 
a third may offer more thorough academic training. By 



102 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

a system of county and State supervision and by a regula- 
tion permitting pupils who have attained the seventh 
grade to be transferred, at county expense, from a school 
of one type to a school of another type, in which are offered 
the studies he desires to pursue, the opportunity for the 
country boy or girl to receive an education in keeping with 
his or her taste and needs will have been made as com- 
plete as it is for the city youth. 

From what has already been said it seems clear that 
the reorganized plan would hold more pupils in school 
for a longer period; would better prepare every type of 
student for whatever further study he might undertake, 
or for whatever vocation in life he might choose; would 
ameliorate the disciplinary and administrative burdens of 
all school officials; would make our system of education 
more nearly consistent with the well-established theories 
and facts of psychology, physiology, and pedagogy, and 
would be in harmony with the best practices of the more 
advanced peoples of the other parts of the world. 

The movement looking toward an organization with 
the essential features similar to the ones above outlined 
is gaining momentum. I append the convictions of two 
well-known leaders. 

Mr. A. S. Draper, Commissioner of Education for the 
State of New York, in an address before the Massachu- 
setts Teachers' Association, November 26, 1909, spoke in 
part as follows : 

"We believe that very generally the courses in the ele- 
mentary school are too much prolonged, that the grades 
and the years are more than need be, that some unneces- 
sary branches are included, and that some others are too 
attenuated, and that there are often more grades of text- 
books than are desirable in one branch. 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 103 

"Therefore, we shall soon recommend an elementary 
course of study with but six grades and nominally occu- 
pying six years, instead of eight, in the confidence that it 
will be more, rather than less, educationally efficient. 

" We would follow this great and universal elementary 
school system, so simplified and strengthened, with a sys- 
tem of secondary schools, which for the present, and in 
our State, shall be distinctly separated at the very begin- 
ning into three great classes: first, the present literary 
high school; second, commercial or business schools, and 
third, general industrial or trade schools. 

"The schools of the third branch are of immediate in- 
terest now. We propose that they occupy buildings that 
look like shops; that they be taught by workmen who 
can teach rather than by teachers with a little mechanical 
skill; that to a moderate extent they use books which are 
really germane to the work to be taught, but that their 
main instruments be machinery and tools — that they be 
much more shoppish than bookish. We propose that 
these schools be of two general classes, namely, general 
industrial schools, training in general mechanics those 
who will work in factories with machinery and many 
other workmen, and second, trade schools for those who 
will own their own tools and work essentially for them- 
selves." ' The salient features of this plan have since 
been incorporated into the New York system. 

Superintendent Frank T. Bunker, of Berkeley, Cali- 
fornia, in recommending a plan of reorganization before 
the Board of Education, said: "The plan which I rec- 
ommend involves reorganization and regrouping of the 
several grades of our school. Stated briefly, it is this: To 
have three groups of schools, one group (the high school 

'United States Commissioner's report for 1910, pp. ioi, 102. 



104 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

proper) comprising the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years 
only; the second group, which may be called the intro- 
ductory high school group, comprising the seventh, eighth, 
and ninth grades only, and a third group of schools (the 
elementary schools proper), comprising all children of the 
first six years. 

"An examination of this plan will convince one, I 
think, that the division of the grades into three groups is 
a much more natural one than the arrangement under 
which we are now working. . . . Statistics show that the 
masses are held in school no longer than through the 
fifth grade, and that at the close of the fifth grade they 
drop out in very large numbers, which means, educa- 
tionally, that whatever is to be taught to the masses must 
be given in the first five or six years. ... In the schools 
comprising this group I would have the course of study 
uniform for all children and somewhat narrow in its 
scope. ... In the Introductory high school . . . chil- 
dren would enter at the period of adolescence when by 
nature they naturally crave an opportunity to dip into a 
wide range of subjects and activities. ... I would have 
certain prescribed subjects for this group, but in addition 
thereto would permit as many elections as possible. . . . 
I should wish to see the work of this group made exceed- 
ingly rich in content and variety, and particularly in hu- 
man interests. I should hope to see the work of this 
group relate very closely to life and be as far away as pos- 
sible from that which is purely academic in education. 
I should wish much emphasis placed on learning how to 
study, how to use the library, how to get material from 
the same with expedition and judgment. If a child fore- 
sees that he wants to take German or Latin in the high 
school proper, I would wish him to begin these Ian- 



REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 105 

guages when he enters this group and thus have six years 
of work in the same before he enters college. ... I 
should wish to see the work of this group shaped up to 
make a more easy transition from the work of the element- 
ary grades to the departmental work of the high school. 
In line with this, I should wish teachers assigned to work 
in these grades who have a broad culture and a wide ex- 
perience in the grades. ... If this work which I have 
outlined be carefully and efficiently done . . . the incom- 
ing student [to the high school proper] will have de- 
veloped a much more serious attitude toward his work 
than obtains at the present time; will have oriented him- 
self better, so far as his subjects are concerned; and the 
break will not be so great or so discouraging as with the 
plan under which we are now working. Moreover, the 
students entering the high school proper will have de- 
veloped a greater cohesion than now obtains. With our 
present plan students dribble into the high school in small 
numbers and from many schools. They are wholly lack- 
ing anything approaching a community of feeling or a 
feeling of group responsibility. They have had no ex- 
perience in organized action and are not conscious of 
their individual responsibility in contributing to the es- 
tablishment of a student body sentiment which shall be 
high and lofty in purposes and in its influence. . . . With 
three years of community life at the centres wherein the 
administrative methods are shaped to develop this respon- 
sibility, it would seem that the student would enter the 
high school proper at a much higher level with respect to 
student body morale than at present." l 
This plan is to-day in complete operation in Berkeley. 

1 Pamphlet No. 2, pp. 2-10. 



CHAPTER V 
INSTRUCTION: ITS ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL 

Edward C. Elliott, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

The Meaning and Nature of Control. — The progress of 
human society has, at every stage, witnessed an increase 
in the number and complexity of the relationships main- 
tained by individuals, acting singly and through organi- 
zation. These relationships have developed from the fun- 
damental needs of men — protection, food, communica- 
tion, possession, ideals, etc., — and in every society have 
produced for their attainment consciously organized and 
directed efforts that are called institutions. The more 
numerous and complex the relationships, the more highly 
organized have become the institutions. The more highly 
organized the institutions, the more necessary have be- 
come the means and methods whereby they may properly 
and economically perform their intended functions. 

The institutions of our modern society are exceedingly 
complex, and becoming more so as human needs become 
more numerous and human relationships more compli- 
cated. The foremost demand upon the civilization of the 
present is for an efficient control of all institutions that 
contribute to the social welfare. 

Education is the process of changing individuals from 
what they are to what they become. It signifies the trans- 
formation that qualifies human beings to live in helpful 
social contact. It is, therefore, one of the fundamental 

106 



INSTRUCTION 107 

needs of society and consequently of individuals. To 
meet this need the school has been established. The 
school, from this point of view, may be considered that 
institution, that bit of machinery, which society utilizes 
to accomplish a specific work; that is, to increase the 
effectiveness of the relationships which individuals and 
groups of individuals bear to one another. 

Considered as a social institution, devised and oper- 
ated for specific purposes, it is obvious that the school 
must be controlled and directed. It, like all other insti- 
tutions, must be adapted to accomplish the results re- 
quired of it. Its various parts must be brought into effec- 
tive and economical relation to each other, so as to pro- 
duce those changes in individuals most beneficial to the 
whole of society, to enable a direct response to the needs 
of men and to develop a clear understanding of their 
mutual dependence upon each other. This, in brief, is 
the function or work of school control. 

The Forms of External Control. — It is evident that a 
large number of matters are involved in the work of organ- 
izing and directing the work of a school. Ideals must be 
conceived, general policies of action formulated, resources 
supplied, accommodations and equipment provided, and 
standards for teachers and instruction determined. If 
we analyze carefully the chief controlling forces of the 
school, it is possible to distinguish four distinct elements. 
These are: (a) the legislative, (b) the administrative, (c) 
the supervisory, and (d) the inspectorial. For reasons 
which will presently become apparent, it is essential to 
recognize these separate elements. 1 Each performs, as 

1 It may be insisted upon that the distinctions here pointed out repre- 
sent more than formal, verbal differences. In fact, the confusion of 
these terms has hindered the development of effective school control, 



108 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

it were, a different task and each involves activities re- 
sulting in special influences. 

(a) Legislative control is that form of regulation ex- 
erted by the authority possessing final governmental juris- 
diction. In the case of schools belonging to a public 
educational system, this control is usually centred in the 
legislature, by the sanction of which all public schools 
owe their existence, derive their support, and carry on 
their work. The only restrictions to legislative action 
are those defined by the fundamental law, the constitu- 
tion of the State. Theoretically, the power of the legis- 
lature extends to all schools whether or not organized 
and directed as public schools. The schools maintained 
by religious organizations, as well as those known as 
endowed and private schools, are permitted to exist 
only through a grant of power from the State. This 
grant may be of a general nature, in the form of a con- 
stitutional guarantee of the freedom of the right to teach 
and conduct schools, or it may be of a special nature and 
in the form of a charter or legal incorporation. From a 
practical view-point the legislative control of non-public 
schools is exercised by the body possessing the immediate 
governmental power, as, for instance, the presbytery, gen- 
eral council, etc., of church organizations. 

(b) Administrative control is that vested in the agents 
created by legislative action, or recognized as such by an 
implied legal sanction. Boards of education, boards of 
trustees, superintendents, inspectors, etc., are common 
types of such agents. Administrative activities have, 

particularly of public schools. There is yet another type of control that 
may be designated as the managerial. In this classification managerial 
control is regarded as operating internally, and is considered as being 
made up of the activities within the direction of the class teachei. 



INSTRUCTION 109 

however, certain special characteristics which distinguish 
them from those which are legislative, supervisory, or in- 
spectorial. They are, first of all, general in their nature, 
in that they do not depend upon technical or expert 
knowledge for their successful performance. Further- 
more, the duties and responsibilities of administrators 
are usually imposed and defined directly by law, or pre- 
scribed by an authority established in law for this purpose. 
This is the variety of control exercised by boards of edu- 
cation and other legally authorized bodies and persons 
in establishing and supporting schools, in providing ade- 
quate accommodations and equipment, in securing prop- 
erly qualified teachers, and, in general, observing the re- 
strictions and requirements of the higher legislative au- 
thority. 

(c) Supervisory control depends for its effectiveness 
upon agents possessing technical and expert knowledge 
of educational processes, and capable of employing that 
knowledge for the development and advancement of the 
institutions coming under their control. Its mode of op- 
eration is, or should be, determined, not by the general 
or limited prescriptions of legislative enactment, but by 
the universal standards of scientific procedure. This is 
the variety of control that should be exercised by agents 
selected for this immediate purpose, directors, superin- 
tendents, supervisors, head-masters, and principals. Such 
control cannot become effective if exercised by laymen or 
those whose real duties are administrative. Whereas, 
administrative control is general in character and oper- 
ates impersonally, supervisory control is special in char- 
acter and properly operates with reference to individ- 
uals. A personal contact between the one supervising 
and the one supervised is a necessary condition. Above 



110 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

all, skilled supervisors must directly produce constructive 
results. 

(d) Closely related to supervisory control, yet to be 
distinguished from it, is the inspectorial control. This is 
also special in character and is based upon expert knowl- 
edge of the conditions and technique of successful and 
efficient instruction. It differs from the supervisory ac- 
tivity in that its special purpose is not personal, construc- 
tive service. Its aim is toward an impersonal, objective 
measurement of the results and worth of the school. 
Thus, narrowly interpreted, an inspector's special func- 
tion is to pass upon worth and efficiency. A supervisor 
must do this and more; he must raise the worth and in- 
crease the efficiency. 

Strictly speaking, each one of the several matters enter- 
ing into the make-up of the school is subject in some de- 
gree to each one of the different forms of control indicated. 
There is legislative control of ideals, finance, buildings, 
teachers, instruction, discipline, and, in fact, all of the 
different features of organized education. There is like- 
wise an administration, a supervision, and an inspection 
of each. Inasmuch as the immediate and limited pur- 
pose of this chapter is the discussion of the more impor- 
tant aspects of the control of instruction in secondary 
schools, an attempt to indicate fundamental distinctions 
between the several forms or varieties of control as applied 
to the instructional activities of these schools will now be 
undertaken. 

Three Aims of Subject-Matter. — The subject-matter of 
instruction in any school, or scheme of education, may be 
said to represent three separate aims which, while closely 
related to one another, require independent considera- 
tion from the point of view of control. 



INSTRUCTION 111 

The programme of studies 1 reflects the broad social pur- 
pose for which the school stands. It is a concentrated 
product of the experience of society, and its precise char- 
acter at any time and place is determined by the larger 
fundamental needs of the society to which the school is 
responsible. 2 Its motive is derived, not from the special 
educational requirements of any particular individual, nor 
from the necessities of any single group of individuals, 
but is dependent upon the sum total of individual and 
group needs. 3 The curriculum, on the other hand, sig- 
nifies an effort to provide for the needs of differing indi- 
viduals and differing classes. Here is to be found special- 
ization of instruction for the benefit of the one or the few. 
The organization of such curricula is to be observed in the 
formulation of the so-called special courses — English, col- 
lege preparatory, scientific, commercial, technical — in 
the modern cosmopolitan high school. The course of 
study, that is, the quantity, quality, and method of work, 

1 In the absence of a generally recognized and clearly denned termi- 
nology, it seems appropriate to recognize some distinction between the 
several terms applying to the organization of instruction. Those sug- 
gested by the Committee on College Entrance Requirements (Report, 
p. 42), in spite of certain limitations, will serve the present purpose. The 
programme of studies properly includes all the subjects offered in a given 
school. The curriculum refers to a group of subjects systematically 
arranged for any pupil or set of pupils. The course of study means the 
quantity, quality, and method of work in any given subject of instruc- 
tion. 

2 This is only partly true. The school and all education are too much 
subject to tradition to be, at any particular time, immediately and di- 
rectly responsible to the prevailing demands. Consequently, the content 
and processes of instruction always lag behind the social need and the 
individual requirement. 

3 "In other words, in the determination of the course of study [i. e., 
programme of studies], not the interests and activities of the individual, 
but the ideals, the requirements, the activities of society constitute the 
final standard." (MacVannel, School Review, vol. 14, 103.) 



112 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

in any given subject of instruction, is the result of the expe- 
rience of the school and of the teacher. Broadly speak- 
ing, the programme of studies is the means for realizing 
the wide social ideal; the curriculum, the means for arriv- 
ing at class or individual ends; and the course of study, 
the means for attaining an immediate pedagogical object. 
Society as a whole determines the first; special groups, 
the second; and the school, the third. 

The programme of studies, the curriculum, and the 
course of study represent the foundation material of the 
instructional work of the school. Each is, in varying 
amounts, subject to legislative, to administrative, to su- 
pervisory, and to inspectorial control. An outline answer 
to the question, who should determine the content, the 
operation, and the standards of worth of instruction will, 
it is believed, serve to delimit the field of action of each 
type of control. 

The Making of Plans and Specifications of Instruction. 
— The past has always laid a heavy hand on social insti- 
tutions, especially the school, and more especially what 
the school has taught. This has been both good and 
bad for formal education; good in that experience has 
been a guide to trodden paths; bad, in that the experience 
of the past too frequently has not been able to see 
around the corner of the present. Albeit, modern school 
control must be conscious of the indisputable fact that 
the ideals and acquirements of preceding generations of 
school practice cannot be disregarded. The school fol- 
lows the universal law of evolutionary development. 
Therefore, when one speaks of planning programmes of 
studies, the organization of curricula, or the making of 
courses of study, what one really means is that a con- 
scious endeavor is being made to adapt the established 



INSTRUCTION 113 

content, arrangement, and method of instruction to the 
new and changed conditions of the present. Effective con- 
trol of school instruction must be Argus-eyed, and while 
it attends chiefly to the educational needs of the society of 
to-day and to-morrow, it may not neglect to hold in view 
the accomplishments of the society of yesterday. 

If it has been impossible for the school to evade the 
power of the past, it has been difficult in the extreme to 
avoid an autocracy of the present. The whims, biases, 
and transitory enthusiasms of influential individuals, as 
well as the established interests of special social groups, 1 
seek to impress themselves upon what and how the school 
teaches. The real wisdom of school control consists in 
an ability to detect and absorb the elements of real prog- 
ress and to disregard the counterfeit and the make-believe. 

It may appropriately be asked at this point, as a mat- 
ter of great practical importance, what special responsi- 
bility does each one of the described forms of school con- 
trol have with regard to the general plans and schemes of 
instruction to be followed in a school or class of schools ? 
The circumstances of presentation compel brevity of re- 
ply. Beyond question, the proper fixing of the kind, 
amount, and order of arrangement of the instruction are 
matters requiring expert knowledge. They are matters 
that should be determined in accordance with defined 
social and scientific principles, the meaning and opera- 
tion of which can be comprehended only after that period 
of special study, training, and experience, through which 
only scientific specialists and technicists pass. Conse- 
quently, they should not be subject to the direct influ- 
ence of either legislative or administrative control. They 

1 The recognized power of the commercial classes over modern schools 
of all grades aptly illustrates this portion of the argument. 



114 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

belong strictly to the province of the supervisor and the 
inspector. 

To specify more in detail : Only in so far as a general 
social policy is concerned may the legislative authority 
be exercised within the field of secondary or higher in- 
struction. 1 It may describe the ideal and ends to be 
attained; it may frame the general policy of operation; 
it may prescribe the functions of specific institutions; it 
may grant to administrative and supervisory agents per- 
missive authorization to require the teaching of certain 
subjects. To go beyond these limits means encroach- 
ment and interference with the legitimate scientific direc- 
tion of instruction, which, it may again be emphasized, 
depends upon the free exercise of the skill and insight of 
the expert. 

A problem far more difficult of practical solution is 
presented by the relation of administrative boards and 
agents to the organization and control of instruction. 
This problem is a conspicuous one with the public high 
schools. Any satisfactory or complete discussion of the 
proper functions of boards of education (and all boards 
and general administrative officers controlling fiduciary 
and other non-public institutions) is entirely beyond the 
scope of this brief discussion. It seems essential, how- 
ever, to express the general conclusion that, in respect to 
instruction, such boards should confine themselves to pro- 
viding support and material means and, above all, com- 

1 Paradoxical though it may seem, the prescription of instruction in 
public elementary schools by legislatures may be defended on the ground 
of the social issues involved. While in the United States it had been 
customary to define by law the subjects of instruction for public elemen- 
tary schools, the causes and reasons for such legislative control do not 
hold in the more complicated and differentiated fields of public secondary 
and higher education. 



INSTRUCTION 115 

petent supervisory and instructional experts. They may, 
and perhaps should, as a matter of social policy, approve 
recommended programmes of study. The details of these 
programmes, the organization of curricula, and the fix- 
ing of the content of courses of study belong elsewhere. 
Ideally, the ultimate control of the general plan and 
working details of instruction should rest primarily with 
the supervisory authorities: guided by the general social 
policy formulated by the legislative and administrative 
authorities, with due regard to the capacity of these au- 
thorities to provide ways and means, and acting in co- 
operation with the principal agents of instruction, the 
teachers. 1 

Inspectorial Control of Instruction. — It is pertinent to 
include at this time some consideration of the inspec- 
torial control of instruction, which has developed from 
two principal sources — the organized State school systems, 
and the higher educational institutions, college and uni- 
versity. Each serves to standardize the intellectual or- 
ganization of secondary schools and thus to influence in a 
marked manner the purpose and content of programmes, 
curricula, and courses of study. 

During the past two decades the public high school 

1 "As long as the teacher, who is, after all, the only real educator in 
the school system, has no definite and authoritative position in shaping 
the course of study, it is likely to remain an external thing to be externally 
applied to the child." (Dewey, "The Educational Situation," p. 30.) 

As a matter of fact, this desirable relation of the teacher to instructional 
plans so effectively set forth by Professor Dewey is, in the great majority 
of cases, most difficult of attainment. So long as secondary school- 
teachers, as a class, live such a short life of professional activity, and 
are trained only to the point of being able to reach a scanty minimum 
of instructional or educational efficiency, the chief dependence for the 
efficient direction of teaching must be upon the supervisory and in- 
spectorial authorities. 



116 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

has undergone a rapid expansion and development. 
More and more it has tended to become the most impor- 
tant institution of popular education. This situation has 
caused the State to employ various means for raising the 
efficiency of the high school, chiefly by the provision of 
special financial aids and the establishment of certain 
more or less uniform standards of instruction to be met 
as a condition for the award of the State support. Sys- 
tematic State inspection of public high schools by agents 
of the State has been a natural outcome, and contem- 
porary events would seem to indicate a yet more extended 
oversight of public high school instruction by the State. 
That this will be justified, there can be no debate; pro- 
vided, however, that this oversight is exercised through 
skilled agents, competent to evaluate the meaning and 
results of instruction, and in such a manner as to leave 
to the supervisory authority of each school its freedom of 
action and rightful responsibilities. Effective, construc- 
tive supervision, it may be repeated, results from personal 
contact of the supervisor and supervised. The State 
should inspect, but not supervise instruction. And this 
responsibility of inspection should extend to all schools, 
public, private, and otherwise. 

In theory, the State is seeking more effectively to realize 
the public purpose of secondary education by setting up 
standards of value. The college and the university have, 
at the same time, striven to secure from the secondary 
school that quality and quantity of instruction which 
might serve as a foundation for their own work. Origi- 
nally the higher educational institutions did not much 
concern themselves with the instruction given in the high 
and other preparatory schools. Students applying for 
admission were tested by formal, written examinations. 



INSTRUCTION 117 

With the establishment and development of the State 
colleges and universities this method was gradually re- 
placed by that of admitting upon the certificate from the 
secondary school. Such a plan presumes that certain pre- 
scribed entrance requirements have been fulfilled, and in 
consequence the college and university have begun to 
exert a large and, in many respects, an ill-proportioned in- 
fluence upon the kind and amount of instruction in the 
high school. From-the inspectorial relationship which the 
higher institution assumed toward the lower has developed 
one of the most complex issues in modern education. It is 
not intended to present in any detailed way the problems 
that have arisen. We may not dismiss the subject with- 
out expressing the judgment, which might be supported 
by ample evidence, that this inspectorial relationship 
should not carry with it the power and authority to inter- 
fere with the legitimate activities of the supervisory 
authority of any school. The State and higher educa- 
tion are primarily interested in the product of instruction. 
The means and processes for producing this product are 
matters that should be within the determination of those 
in immediate supervisory charge of instruction. 

Internal Control. — Up to this point the presentation 
has been confined to those factors of influence that oper- 
ate externally; that is, they impress themselves on the 
school from the outside. It is now desirable to consider 
the principal internal forces that make for the efficient 
organization and control of instruction. 

Principals and Superintendents. — As a consistent con- 
clusion to the argument already set forth, the first and 
foremost requirement for the realization of the aim of 
any school is that it be under skilful direction and con- 
trol. This is to say, that the individuals filling the office 



118 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of principal, head-master, superintendent, or by whatever 
name the supervisorship is known, are to be personally, 
professionally, and in every other way fitted to act as 
directors of a real educational process. It is far from 
sufficient that they be administrators and executives or 
inspectors of high grade, however necessary and valuable 
the proper performance of the activities implied by those 
words may be. As a rule, American schools are well 
provided in these directions. The capacity to lead without 
compelling, to inspire without futile resort to wordy sen- 
timent, to produce a unity of aim from diversity of effort, 
to measure results scientifically and humanely, and to 
spell the responsibility of self and co-workers to pupils 
with a capital R — these are the demands of the super- 
visor, especially of secondary instruction. Minus these, 
the machinery of organization moves without progress, 
and programmes, curricula, and courses have a depre- 
ciated value. The competent supervisor then represents 
the first condition for the vitality and worth of instruction. 
Legislator and administrator perform their chief direct 
duties toward instruction by providing for the supervisor. 
Teachers. — But leadership must needs have followers, 
and control must issue from intelligent co-operation. 
The lever of instruction rests upon the qualified class 
teachers who constitute the fulcrum of educational effi- 
ciency. And by qualified is meant individuals who have 
been selected, educated, and trained for specific instruc- 
tional duties. A frank, unbiased view of the existing situ- 
ation must be convincing that, speaking by and large, the 
secondary schools of America, non-public as well as 
public, are not accomplishing their tasks, chiefly because 
of the lack of educated and trained teachers. It has 
taken several decades to establish the general standard 



INSTRUCTION 119 

that an education equal in quantity to four years be- 
yond the high school is a not unreasonable one for high 
and other secondary school-teachers. It will probably 
take another decade or more to produce a wide realiza- 
tion that the college graduate is, ipso facto, not qualified 
to teach any subject in the expanded programme of 
studies, even though he is permitted, ipso jure, to attempt 
to do so. Whatever be the necessary personal attributes 
and the broad cultural foundations for successful and 
efficient teaching — and these qualities do not stand in 
need of emphasis — the class teacher, upon whom result- 
ful instruction depends, must be a master of one or, 
better, two subjects of instruction; a master of those 
subjects, not according to the traditional standards of 
academic scholarship, but according to the standards 
erected for secondary education. These latter standards 
necessitate a mastery of the intellectual and moral proc- 
esses of children as well as the mastery of the forms of 
knowledge. The central responsibility for this mastery 
rests with the institutions charged with the preparation 
of teachers for secondary schools. 

Selection of Teachers. — While the preparation of a 
sufficient supply of properly qualified teachers is as yet 
an unsolved problem with us in America, there is another 
closely related one which is of even greater importance 
to the school. Expert and competent supervision, if it 
be worthy of its name, must include the right to select 
the teachers who are to carry out the plan of instruction. 
Here, at least in so far as public schools are concerned, 
and in particular the public schools of small communities, 
the practice of lay administrative boards in assuming to 
select and to determine the fitness of teachers constitutes 
an obstacle of no mean proportions to progressive stand- 



120 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ards of instruction. The selection of teachers is not 
only one of the rights, but also one of the inherent re- 
sponsibilities of the supervisor. Without this right and 
this responsibility the holder of the supervisorship de- 
generates into the position of performing, mechanically, 
administrative duties connected with instruction. The 
class teacher personally fit, liberally educated, technically 
trained, professionally selected and retained according to 
defined standards of teaching efficiency represents the 
second condition whereby the plans of instruction take 
on reality. 

Material Equipment. — To adept supervision and pro- 
ficient teaching must be added as a third condition the 
provision of appropriate accommodations and necessary 
equipment. The need of buildings, convenient and 
adapted for their special educational uses, and of books 
and apparatus, is too evident to justify any discussion. 
This need has become greater with the rapid growth of 
attendance upon the schools under consideration. Never- 
theless, the number of these schools which are housed and 
equipped in ways that enable the most fruitful teaching 
is relatively small; regretfully small, when the gross ex- 
penditures for these items are recalled. Calculation of 
the realizable worth of any course of study must take into 
account the objective facilities at hand in the form of 
libraries, laboratories, and illustrative material of every 
sort. Efficient administration will furnish these aids to 
teaching; efficient supervision and teaching will convince 
those responsible for the material welfare of the school 
that there is an intimate relation between these means 
and the desired ends of instruction. 

Text-Books. — The text-book maintains a place of first 
importance among the necessary equipment for instruc- 



INSTRUCTION 121 

tion. Even with its limitations as an instrument for 
teaching, and admitting the altogether too prevalent 
tendency of both teachers and learners to magnify 
its value, the agencies for the supervision and direction 
of the instructional work of the school must reckon with 
it. Here again the expert control of the school finds itself 
restricted and handicapped by other predominating forces. 
The selection of text-books, next to the selection of teach- 
ers, is a responsibility that belongs within, and not with- 
out, the school. Under existing conditions officers of 
administration and representatives of commercial inter- 
ests exercise too potent an influence, an influence which 
is not always regardful of the requirements of instruction 
and education. Under a proper plan of organization, 
the supervisory authority, acting in close co-operation 
with the teacher, should determine finally the question of 
text-books. Violation of this essential working principle 
is a needless interference with the legitimate functions of 
those from whom society expects a service founded on 
skill and technical knowledge of the educational processes. 

In all probability the school will best succeed in attain- 
ing its instructional ends by providing for its pupils the 
needful text-books. The free text-book for public ele- 
mentary schools has proved its advantages. The argu- 
ments that hold with this class of schools are equally, and 
perhaps even more, valid in the case of secondary schools. 

Instruction in Operation. — From now on the questions 
before us involve the triangular relations of supervisor, 
teacher, and pupil. The more important of these may be 
dwelt upon only briefly. 

Supervisory Control. — The activities of control that are 
rightfully supervisory in character have been already 
described as involving expert skill in applying technical 



122 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

knowledge of the means and methods of education; as 
involving a personal, co-operative contact between the 
supervisor and the teacher; as resulting in construc- 
tive progress. While effective supervision comprehends 
these aims and results, in actual practice it includes also 
the measuring function of the inspector. Stating the 
matter in another way, purposeful supervisory control 
necessitates clear-cut standards for determining the rela- 
tive worth of the various means and methods which the 
school employs to produce its products; and also the 
relative worth of the products. 

The first test of direct supervisory power comes with 
the assignment of the teacher's instructional work. Given 
teachers of the requisite special preparation and general 
fitness, it is yet necessary to bring about the adaptations 
to the variable circumstances under which instruction 
within the school must be conducted. As a general prac- 
tice the secondary school requires of each individual 
teacher too great an amount of teaching. Five periods 
of fifty minutes each per day — which means twenty-five 
periods of instruction for the week — may be regarded as 
a maximum assignment. In certain subjects, as, for in- 
stance, those in science, requiring for their proper treat- 
ment much preliminary detail; or English, demanding a 
rigorous scrutiny of written work, a limit of four daily 
periods of teaching should be established in the interest 
of the best results. At any rate, every assignment will 
consider all of the factors that exert a positive or negative 
influence upon the working capacity of teacher and pupils. 
The widely prevailing practice of considering a class as 
a standard, uniform thing in assigning work to teachers 
is not wholly consistent with wisely directed control. 
Differences in quality of courses of study, the size and 



INSTRUCTION 123 

possible rate of progress of classes must be constantly 
held in mind. 

A second test of the worth of the supervisory control is 
to be found in the ability of the supervisor to serve as 
an inspector and to distinguish teaching that is prolific 
in results from that which is barren; theoretically, a sim- 
ple thing; in reality, a most complicated and difficult 
accomplishment. The more common types of profitless 
instruction are generally known, as well as those having 
real worth. These types do not ordinarily present grave 
problems. The real problems are to be found in the great 
amount of teaching that is neither good nor bad. To de- 
tect without delay teaching of this sort and to analyze it 
into its constituent elements characterize the trained in- 
spector; to be able to eliminate from these elements those 
that are useless or harmless and to cultivate and develop 
those that are really serviceable distinguishes the construc- 
tive supervisor. The latter tasks are the more needful 
for the efficiency of instruction and consequently the least 
frequently attended to. In the stage of development in 
which modern organized education of every grade finds 
itself, the supreme business of the supervisor is to trans- 
form average, or less than average, teaching performance 
into something that has a much larger positive worth. 
To accomplish this great end the instruction of each class 
and of each course of study will be constantly guided in 
its conduct; guided but not blindly restrained. 1 Further- 
more, justice requires the intimate acquaintance with the 
work of each teacher that comes from regular, systematic 

1 The preparation of weekly outlines and plans of work, and the 
periodic submission of reports of progress of classes by teachers, are 
regulative devices of worth when properly handled. There is always 
the danger, however, that they will come to be regarded as ends in them- 
selves. 



124 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and intensive visitation by the supervisor. Constructive 
criticism is individual. It cannot be generalized and 
effectively applied by treating the teachers of a school 
en masse. Teachers' meetings, save for the discussion 
and formulation of general policies, are neither economic 
nor effective means for increasing individual teaching 
power. 

The organization and operation of instruction through 
programmes, curricula, and courses of study has as a fun- 
damental and, indeed, an only purpose the creation of 
influences that will result in those changes in the capacity 
and conduct of individuals which we call education. 
The immediate subject of attention of the supervisor is the 
teacher, for directly through the teacher these changes 
are produced. The ultimate purpose of all school con- 
trol is, however, to secure to the pupil those conditions most 
favorable to the production of those changes desirable to 
him as an individual and needful for the welfare of so- 
ciety. The pupil is the centre of gravity of the educa- 
tional system, and all the forces of instruction should be 
aligned to this centre. 

The relationship of the supervisor to the class teacher 
has been described as including as essential elements the 
selection of qualified teachers, the economical and effec- 
tive assignment of work, and the measurement of results. 
The relation of the supervisor and the class teacher to the 
pupil is composed of these same essential elements. 

Preparation of the Pupil. — The timely and complete 
fruition of instruction in the secondary school is in the 
largest measure dependent upon the capacity and ele- 
mentary preparation of the pupils for this instruction. 
Whatever be the cause, the absence of a thorough ele- 
mentary foundation of its entering pupils constitutes a 



INSTRUCTION 125 

very real problem of the American high school. It must 
be remembered that this school is not an independent 
educational organization; it is an integral unit of a larger 
whole. To the large demands now placed upon it should 
not be added that of supplying the elementary foundation. 
The desire for regular progress through the elementary 
schools, amounting almost to a passion with the public, 
the teachers, and the pupils 1 has, without question, low- 
ered the standard of necessary qualifications for admis- 
sion to the secondary school. The noticeable tendency 
of the present day to increase the amount of elementary 
instruction in public and non-public secondary schools 
is significant evidence upon this point. 

To establish standards that really measure the fitness 
of pupils for the pursuit of secondary courses of study is 
as yet one of the unperformed tasks of modern school con- 
trol. Such standards should include not only those of an 
intellectual character, but also those taking into account 
ambitions and potential capacities of individuals. These 
are social assets which the schools dare not waste. 

Curricula and Courses of Study. — The assignment of 
work for pupils, either as groups or as individuals, neces- 
sitates the making of curricula and courses of study. The 
insight of the supervisor and the skill of the teacher come 
to their consummation in the adaptation of the instruction 
to the real and vital needs of the individual. Details may 
not be elaborated here, but as a general proposition it 
may be said that the justification of secondary education 
as a part of a broad social policy will be found in the 

'"Sometimes I wonder how many pupils, upon an honest grading, 
with a course of study intelligently prepared, would actually reach the 
grade next below the high school, for I know that many are 'pushed up.' " 
(Chancellor, ''Class Teaching and Management," p. 208.) 



126 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

degree to which the instruction in secondary schools 
functions in the conduct and lives of those receiving it. 
The day of merely formal intellectual attainment is past, 
at least within the realm of popularly supported educa- 
tion. Curricula and courses of study find their real 
basis in the demands that life makes upon individuals. 1 
To analyze these demands and to take stock of the in- 
dividual are requirements which cannot be evaded if in- 
struction is what instruction claims to be. 

One especially important aspect of this problem will 
need to be considered by the school control of the im- 
mediate future. This is the differentiation of the con- 
tent and method of instruction of boys from those of 
girls. The old democratic ideal of educational equality 
that has resulted in the practical identity of the secondary 
instruction of boys and girls must sooner or later give 
way to the new democratic ideal that distinguishes identity 
and equality of instruction. The proper winnowing of the 
younger generation for life's serious purposes will be ac- 
complished only by giving to boys instruction intended 
for boys, and to girls instruction designed for girls. 

Tests of Attainment. — As a final element of the relation 
of school control and instruction to pupils, that of devis- 

1 " With the rounding out of the high school to meet all the needs of life, 
the standard changes. It ceases to be these vague abstractions. We 
get, relatively speaking, a scientific problem — that is, a problem with defi- 
nite data and definite methods of attack. We are no longer concerned 
with the abstract appraisal of studies by the measuring-rod of culture or 
discipline. Our problem is rather to study the typical necessities of 
social life and the actual nature of the individual in his specific needs 
and capacities. Our task is, on one hand, to select and adjust the studies 
with reference to the nature of the individual thus discovered; and on 
the other hand, to order and group them so that they shall most definitely 
and systematically represent the chief lines of social endeavor and social 
achievement." (Dewey, "The Educational Situation as Concerns Second- 
ary Education," p. 79.) 



INSTRUCTION 127 

ing reliable measures of attainment and progress repre- 
sents a problem of prime importance. The common 
measures of the efficiency of teachers are in reality esti- 
mates of the worth of causes that are presupposed to con- 
tribute to the product of teaching. Personality, intel- 
lectual attainment, moral vigor are illustrations of the 
terms used when making such estimates. There is need, 
though, to find some measures of the results of teaching. 
Percentages and marks are rough attempts at this kind 
of measurement. They are inadequate and unreliable as 
real tests of the effectiveness of instruction. The school 
assumes through itself and its instruction to develop so- 
called "powers." Some measure of these powers is yet 
to be contrived before we shall know what is the real 
worth of teaching. The moral as well as the intellectual 
acquirements of the instructional process are tangible 
objects measurably worthy of the attention of a scientific 
control of instruction; are necessary for such control. 



CHAPTER VI 

MATHEMATICS 

L. C. Karpinski, Ph. D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

" No single instrument of youthful education has such 
mighty power, both as regards domestic economy and politics, 
and in the arts, as the study of arithmetic. Above all, arith- 
metic stirs up him who is by nature sleepy and dull, and makes 
him quick to learn, retentive, shrewd." (Plato, " Laws," 5: 74.) 

Place of Mathematics. — Mathematics has always held 
an honorable place in instruction. If other subjects are 
to supersede it they must first demonstrate their superi- 
ority for preparing the youth for the world's work. As 
yet, indeed, no other well-articulated branches of instruc- 
tion, comparable to the possible progressive sequence in 
mathematics, can be offered in the curriculum, as in no 
other subject has the work been so well and so completely 
formulated. In American schools mathematics holds the 
commanding position of the required subject, covering a 
period of years extending through the primary and second- 
ary grades, and demanding continued application along 
one line of reasoning. This is more true of American than 
of European schools, as in European school systems the 
work in Latin plays much the same role. The purpose 
in this paper is to show that mathematics still has a valid 
claim to the place accorded it in education. 

Mathematics Among the Ancients. — The Greek recog- 
nition of mathematics is best attested by the long line of 

128 



MATHEMATICS 129 

philosophers who were mathematicians and of mathema- 
ticians who were philosophers. Aside from purely liter- 
ary and philosophical works, our knowledge of ancient 
Greek thought is gained largely from the record of their 
achievements in this field. To a somewhat less extent 
this holds for ancient peoples with whose civilization we 
are not so well acquainted. Hindu literature abounds in 
references to mathematical subjects and the closely related 
astronomical ones* So, too, the wise men of Egypt and 
Babylon and China, many centuries before the Christian 
era, occupied themselves with this science. Coming down 
through the ages to the Mohammedan period, we find 
that the Arabs began their intellectual activity by the 
study of the mathematics of Greece and India. These 
Arabic writers have powerfully influenced our modern 
courses in mathematics. While in elementary geometry 
the Greek influence is predominant (although the men- 
suration side is probably as much Egyptian and Roman 
as Greek), the algebra, arithmetic, and trigonometry carry 
us back to the Mohammedans, and especially to Al- 
Khowarizmi, whose name, in Latin transliteration Al- 
gorismi, gave rise to the word algorism, long used for 
arithmetic. 

Mediaeval Mathematics. — Al-Khowarizmi lived in Bag- 
dad early in the ninth century. His treatise on the 
Hindu art of reckoning with the nine digits and a zero to 
give place value was translated into Latin in the twelfth 
century and this was the work which introduced into 
Europe modern arithmetic with the ten symbols of India. 
An Englishman, John of Halifax (Sacrobosco), becoming 
acquainted with this translation, wrote an Algorismus 
vulgaris which was widely used in university instruction 
in arithmetic from 1250 to 1550. From Al-Khowarizmi 



130 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

we have also an algebra, the first well-coordinated text- 
book on the subject which has come to us, although 
Diophantus (c. 250 A. D.) had covered much the same 
ground. The body of this Arabic algebra deals with the 
solution of quadratic equations including geometrical 
explanations of the forms: ax 2 +bx=n, ax 2 +n=bx, and 
bx+n=ax 2 . The theory of irrationals is touched upon 
slightly, but negative numbers as such do not appear, 
which accounts for the three types of quadratic equations, 
as above. This algebra was translated in the twelfth 
century both by Robert of Chester and Gerhard of Cre- 
mona, and such translations long occupied a place in uni- 
versity instruction, even as did Al-Khowarizmi's arith- 
metic. In trigonometry his contributions were relatively 
less important and yet worthy of mention. The De trian- 
gulis omnimodis libri quinque, by Regiomontanus (1436- 
76), is the precurser of modern trigonometries although 
much of the science was developed in earliest times. 

The period from the sixth century (A. D.) to the 
founding of the universities in the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries was remarkably unproductive and unprogres- 
sive. The mathematical work formed no exception. In 
arithmetic the instruction was mainly in formal defini- 
tions and the Greek arithmetical corresponding roughly 
to the elements of modern number theory, and excluding 
practical computation. However, in the tenth century 
the abacus began to be used, and from this time on trea- 
tises explaining its operation are fairly common. Typi- 
cal text-books of these centuries are represented by the 
extremely sterile arithmetic and geometry of Boethius 
(c. 480-524). His geometry contains only a fractional 
part of the first four books of Euclid without proofs, but 
with some additional mensuration. 



MATHEMATICS 131 

European Countries. — With the rise of the universities 
the geometry of Euclid and the Hindu art of reckoning 
became regular studies of the curriculum. In the first 
half of the sixteenth century the M.A. degree in England 
presupposed a knowledge of the first six books of Euclid. 
In arithmetic the fundamental operations with integers, 
square root, cube root, fractions, and progressions occu- 
pied the attention of students. Algebra had no place 
even in German universities until late in the fifteenth 
century. Geometry was not generally introduced into 
the secondary schools of Germany until late in the seven- 
teenth century, while ordinary arithmetic preceded it by 
a century. Other European states lagged behind Ger- 
many. England and France did not add geometry to 
the secondary programme until the eighteenth century, 
while algebra in the schools is largely an innovation of 
the nineteenth. 

United States. — In the United States common public 
secondary schools are less than one hundred years old. 
How recent is the general instruction in algebra is shown 
also by the fact that Harvard, in 1841, first required al- 
gebra through quadratics for entrance, and geometry not 
until 1844. The subjects themselves enjoy a respectable 
antiquity, but their appearance in secondary schools is so 
recent that we may with more boldness suggest changes 
in the method of treatment. 

This brief sketch of the history of the elementary 
branches as school material indicates one of the reasons 
for continuing the subjects in the school programme. 
Wars, political divisions, and other largely external facts 
of the lives of ancient peoples are deemed worthy of study. 
How much more so then mathematics, which not only has 
contributed to scientific advancement, but has also played 



132 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

so large a part in the intellectual development of the 
world. 

Practical Bearing of Subject. — The practical side of 
mathematics has frequently been over-emphasized in 
popular discussions of its function. Serious effort has 
been made recently to find problems suitable for second- 
ary work which touch vitally the lives of the pupils or 
their parents. How varied are the applications of mathe- 
matical reasoning is shown by the fact that such prob- 
lems are taken from manual-training work, physics, en- 
gineering, architecture, masonry, navigation, agriculture, 
forestry, drawing, astronomy, designing, athletics, pat- 
tern-making, economics, and carpentry. And yet, were 
we to confine the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, 
algebra, and trigonometry to those phases which enjoy 
a reasonable measure of actual application the time de- 
voted to these subjects could be cut in half. Mathemat- 
ical instruction must justify itself as educational material 
aside from its applied values. 

Varied Appeal of Subject. — While the universality of 
the language of mathematics suggests the common broth- 
erhood of man, the contact with truth, absolute and 
eternal, lifts the mind out of its ordinary channels into 
contemplation of the eternal of the universe. The beau- 
tiful and sublime in mathematics are as difficult to define 
as in music or in art, and just as real. One aspect of the 
beauty is the symmetry even in such simple expressions 
as (a+b) 2 = a 2 + 2 ab + b 2 , (a + b) 3 =a 3 + 3 a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 . 
Harmony in the universe of mathematics is exhibited by 
the relations between arithmetical and geometrical facts; 
while another aspect of beauty is obtained when these 
expressions are grasped as single facts of the expansion of 
(a + b) n . The reign of law apparent here is satisfying to 



MATHEMATICS 133 

the reason. That mathematics makes this general appeal 
to the human mind is clear from our historical sketch and 
is even as true to-day as it was in the time of the Greeks. 

The game element is not to be despised nor. is the 
unique stimulus gained from the successful solution of 
puzzling problems. Both contribute to give the student 
a longing for exploration in fresh fields as well as a sense 
of mental independence not developed by any other 
school discipline. Further, the desire for truth for its 
own sake is worth cultivating as entirely apart from any 
applications. A knowledge of the elementary truths of 
arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry may also be con- 
sidered as a necessary beginning to any comprehension 
of the scheme of the universe. 

Training and efficiency come from continued applica- 
tion along one line of progressive activity. Education 
and culture are by-products of training along several 
lines. More than any other practically available subject, 
the sciences under discussion furnish a body of consistent 
sequential material sufficient to occupy the attention of 
the child for a period of years. Equally important is 
the fact that like the mother-tongue the language of math- 
ematics is employed in the daily life of the child; to 
formulate this in the language of the psychologist there 
is a related body of apperceptive material already present 
in the child consciousness. He has an active and fairly 
continuous interest in number and form, furnishing 
ample material to build upon. 

The reasons for teaching algebra, geometry, and trigo- 
nometry need not be discussed separately, as the one dis- 
tinctive characteristic which makes these subjects avail- 
able for secondary work is just this fact that they are 
closely and logically related. Our schools have happily 



134 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

discarded fine distinctions between algebra and arithme- 
tic, and algebraic symbolism is introduced as soon as 
the child feels the need for it. A most necessary reform 
is to bring about a somewhat similar fusion of the ideas 
of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. 

Need for Mathematics. — The ultimate needs of society, 
and the present needs of the child must govern the selec- 
tion of work in the high school as well as in the element- 
ary school. How varied is the need of mathematical rea- 
soning is shown by the numerous developments along 
mathematical lines in other fields, e. g., biometrics, math- 
ematical chemistry, and mathematical physics. Analyt- 
ical and graphical treatment of statistics is employed by 
the economist, the philanthropist, the business expert, 
the actuary, and even the physician, with the most sur- 
prisingly valuable results; while symbolic language in- 
volving mathematical methods has become a part of well- 
nigh every large business. The handling of pig-iron does 
not seem to offer any opportunity for mathematical appli- 
cation. Yet graphical and analytical treatment of the 
data from long-continued experiments with this material 
at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, resulted in the discovery of 
the law that fatigue varied in proportion to a certain rela- 
tion between the load and the periods of rest. Practical 
application of this law increased the amount handled by 
each man from twelve and a half to forty-seven tons per 
day. Such a study would have been impossible without 
preliminary acquaintance with the simple invariable ele- 
ments of mathematics. 

Relation between Mathematics and Other Subjects. — 
The recent wide-spread movement to humanize and vi- 
talize the work of the school has affected mathematical 
instruction the world over. This has culminated in the 



MATHEMATICS 135 

International Commission to investigate the teaching of 
mathematics. Certain features of this comprehensive 
movement are making a wide appeal. Definite attempt 
is being made to bring the mathematical work into closer 
touch with other subjects of the school curriculum and 
with life. A comparison of modern school texts with 
older ones shows clearly, in the problems presented, the 
effect of this movement. Emphasis is also placed upon 
the necessity of adapting the work to the mental develop- 
ment of the learner. The real problems, for example, 
must have meaning for the pupil, must parallel his stage 
of psychic development. 

The Graphical Method. — The universal aim of instruc- 
tion is to make the child efficient in his actual work in the 
world. An essential to this end is the habit of functional 
thinking, the relating of one body of facts to a connected 
body of facts, and the drawing of sound inferences there- 
from. Usually the graphical method is simplest, as, for 
example, the relation of temperature to time or crop statis- 
tics to time over a period of years. The interpretation of 
such functional relations is part of the business of sec- 

Iondary instruction. Any large comprehension of the one- 
to-one correspondence of one set of data with another 
must be first suggested by the graph. This method may 
be said to have achieved a positive recognition in second- 
ary education. While much has been said in recent years 
about laboratory methods in mathematics, and while a 
closer correlation between physics and mathematics is de- 
sirable, yet any extensive laboratory exercises are foreign 
to the spirit of mathematical instruction. Since the data 
of mathematics are the products of thought, and thought 
alone, the applications also should be sought, not particu- 
larly in especially devised artificial exercises, but rather 



136 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

in problems germane to the student's experience. The 
graph and the use of squared paper, which, in reality, 
constitute the major part of the "laboratory method," 
are now considered a part of the algebra work. Simple 
illustrations may be drawn from physics, e. g., s = vt + c, 
emphasizing also the use of other letters than x, y, and z. 
Of other usable problems especially interesting are the 
graphical time-tables such as are used by railroads. Pu- 
pils will enjoy reporting other applications of graphical 
methods from trade journals, from the Scientific Amer- 
ican, and even from popular magazines. It is clear that 
the use of the graph carries with it the employment of 
approximations which should be emphasized not only 
here but in all of mathematical teaching. 

Wise Distribution of Time Needed. — Fortunately, our 
most pressing need is not that more time be devoted to 
mathematics but rather that the time accorded be more 
wisely distributed. The problem of this distribution af- 
fects the elementary schools as much as the secondary. 
The connection with the six-year high-school course, pre- 
ceded by six years of elementary schools, is intimate. 
Many schools are giving instruction in concrete geometry 
and algebra in the seventh and eighth grades. More 
effective work is being accomplished, in general, when 
this readjustment is accompanied by the departmental 
system of instruction, because, of course, better mathe- 
matical training for teachers is thus assured. The work 
in concrete geometry, mensuration, and mechanical draw- 
ing in the schools should be related closely and artic- 
ulately with demonstrational geometry, e. g., the con- 
struction of triangles with certain parts given should be 
directly connected with the corresponding theorems of 
demonstrational geometry. 



MATHEMATICS 137 

Correlation between Algebra and Geometry. — In the 

high school itself closer correlation is needed between 
the algebra and the geometry. Five years of mathe- 
matics will be written on six-year secondary-school pro- 
grammes, instead of two years of arithmetic, one year of 
elementary algebra, one-half year of advanced algebra, 
one year of plane geometry, and one-half year of solid 
geometry. German, French, and English secondary 
schools have long followed a somewhat similar scheme, 
demonstrational geometry and algebra running through 
six successive years. Recent foreign reforms emphasize 
the need of even closer correlation. The consequent ex- 
tended familiarity with these sciences gives a readier com- 
mand of the terminology, and insures more adequate time 
for the absorption of new and speculative conceptions as 
they naturally arise. This intermingling and correlation 
of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, pos- 
sible with this procedure, provides a more natural course 
for developing mathematical and functional thinking. 

We may illustrate by the mathematical treatment of 
(a + b) 2 and (a — b) 2 , with associated ideas. 

Multiply 3 + 2 by 3; by 2; by 3 + 2. 

Multiply 10 + 7 by 10; by 7; by 10 + 7. 

Multiply 10 + 9 by 19; 100 + 6 by 100 + 6; 15 by 15; 115 by 

"5- 

Multiply 10 + x by 10; by x; by 10 + x. 
Multiply x + 3 by x; by 3; by x + 3. 
Multiply 5 + 3X by 5 + 3X. 

The problems given are simply suggestive of the method 
and it is understood that there should be numerous other 
exercises with this form (a + b) 2 and with similar prob- 
lems relating to (a — b) 2 . This principle also finds appli- 
cation in the following work. 



138 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



Geometric treatment of many problems of this sort 
should be given. 

(10 + 3) 2 = io 2 + 2 • 10 • 3 + 3 2 . (x + s) 2 = x 2 + 2 • s • x + 5 2 . 



10x3 


3 2 


10 2 


10x3 



5X 


5 2 


X 2 


5x 



Fig. i 



Fig. 2 



This is preparatory also to a geometrical solution of 
quadratic equations in work as follows: 

x 2 + iox= 39. Begin with the small square of unknown side x as 
in Fig. 2. Extend two sides by the length 5, forming then two 
rectangles each of area 5X. The total area is then x 2 + iox, which 
by the conditions of the problem equals 39. Adding the small 
square, 25, gives 64. Therefore the side of the larger square is 8. 
Subtracting 5 gives 3 for the value of x. 

A question naturally arises here in regard to a similar 
treatment of forms like (10 + 3) 3 , (x + 3) 3 , (a + b) 3 . 
The possibility of geometrical representation should be 
suggested at first and developed more fully at a later 
time. We may continue with (x + k) 2 = x 2 + 2kx + k 2 
and (x — k) 2 = x 2 — 2kx + k 2 , as formulas with ap- 
plication to (a + 2b) 2 , (107) 2 , (x + 3y) 2 , (3* - y) 2 , 
(96) 2 , etc. 

The numerical applications relate to the former ele- 
mentary multiplication of two-place numbers, and suggest 
the method of mental multiplication of any two two-place 
numbers. 



MATHEMATICS 



139 



The connection of the formula and the figure with the 
extraction of square root should be shown. 

The Pythagorean proposition may be demonstrated 
with the above figure. 



ab / 
2 / 




-i — 
i 
i 

i 

r\ 

! 
i 


ab 

.2 




C2 


i 
i 
i 




ab ^s 

2 




i 

1 

i / 
i / 


/ ab 

2 



Fig. 3 
(a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 



c 2 = (a + b) 2 - 



4ab 



a 2 + b 2 . 



Or again by the following figure and formulas: 




Fig. 4 



4ab 



(a - b) 2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 . c 2 = (a-b) 2 + — = a 3 + b 2 

2 

(a + b) 2 is finally regarded as a special case of (a 4- b) n . 

Some of the above material belongs to the first year of 
a five or six year high school course in mathematics and 



140 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

some to the fifth or sixth. It is intended to be suggestive 
and not for consecutive presentation, unless as a kind of 
summary in the last year. Lest it be supposed that the 
illustration given is unique in the range of its appli- 
cation, attention is called to the equations of the ad- 
vanced algebra, x 3 — 1 = 0, x 4 — 1=0, x 5 — 1 = 0, which 
connect with the regular polygons of plane geometry 
and also with graphical representation of complex 
numbers. Similarly ratio and proportion are suscep- 
tible of analytical and geometrical treatment as well as 
practical application. 

Future Changes in Teaching. — The changes that lie in 
store fpr the teaching of mathematics in the United States 
are without doubt along the lines indicated. The algebra 
work of the seventh and eighth years should first of all 
generalize the arithmetic that precedes and at the same 
time furnish effectual drill in formula substitution. The 
mensuration of simple surfaces and solids, the construc- 
tion problems of drawing, and the concrete geometry in 
these years should be more closely related to demonstra- 
tional geometry, and this, in turn, to applied problems of 
decoration, of design, and to the trades. Algebra, geom- 
etry, and trigonometry should be more closely interwoven. 
Geometrical solutions of quadratic equations, geometric 
and algebraic treatment of ratio and proportion with ap- 
plication to the lever and other problems from physics, 
and the correspondence of theorems of plane geometry 
with theorems of trigonometry are further illustrations of 
possible correlation. 

Oral Work. — Oral work has unfortunately been con- 
fined largely to arithmetic. In algebra and geometry 
many problems may be adapted to oral treatment. The 
fact is that clear exposition of the method to be employed 



MATHEMATICS 141 

in solving ten simple geometric exercises, without setting 
the pencil to paper, is worth much more than the same 
time devoted to a single difficult exercise. Not only this, 
but the fundamental principles are more clearly exem- 
plified in the less difficult examples. Simultaneous black- 
board work for the whole class, on the contrary, has 
occupied too much teaching time in algebra and geometry. 
A relatively greater proportion of time should be given to 
written seat work and oral work. These best prepare for 
the actual problems of life, which are both oral and 
written. 

Need for More Simple Work. — Again the exclusion of 
topics is quite as significant as the suggested innovation 
of method of treatment. In elementary algebra com- 
plicated factoring, complicated complex fractions, highest 
common factor and lowest common multiple by the 
method of continued division, indeterminate equations, 
and inequalities and exceptional cases of simultaneous 
quadratics are representative of topics which are pedagog- 
ically under the ban. The time gained is to be devoted 
to an increased number of simpler problems and to those 
which can be treated orally. In plane and solid geome- 
try, maxima and minima and the subject of formal treat- 
ment of incommensurable cases and of symmetry, all but 
the elementary principles, are excluded, together with the 
most difficult exercises. The tendency is to cut down 
the number of formal propositions to a minimum. Exer- 
cises suitable for oral practice accompany all the theorems 
and are combined with many of the simple problems for 
written solution. So-called "originals" are thus effect- 
ually regarded as vital parts of each day's work. The 
pupils learn to solve by solving. In trigonometry De 
Moivre's theorem and limits and series are relegated 



142 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to more advanced courses in college, while complicated 
exercises in trigonometric transformation give way to 
abundant and essential drill with simpler operations. 

Need for Professionally Trained Teachers. — Probably 
the greatest obstacle to pedagogical advance in school 
mathematics has been the lack of adequately prepared 
teachers. Too often in our high schools teachers have 
been given a class in algebra or geometry simply to fill in 
the planned schedule. Unified and correlated work in 
mathematics throughout a period of years requires well- 
prepared instructors. While the American situation is 
improving in this regard, we yet fall below the standards 
of European countries. The examination required for a 
license to teach in a German gymnasium is quite as 
severe as that for the Ph.D. degree. Mathematical 
methodology indicates sufficiently that the remedy for 
our situation is a more comprehensive conception of the 
function of this subject and more intensive preparation 
on the part of the teachers in subject-matter. 

College graduation may now be assumed as the mini- 
mum requisite in the professional equipment of second- 
ary school teachers. As essentials for the future teacher 
of mathematics should be placed courses in advanced 
algebra, analytic geometry, projective geometry, the cal- 
culus, and one course in physics and an elementary course 
in astronomy. The history of mathematics should also, 
when possible, have a place in this preparation of the 
teacher, as it enhances the human interest in the sub- 
ject. More difficult to obtain and yet fully as needful 
is instruction in method of teaching mathematics hand in 
hand with observation and practice teaching under compe- 
tent guidance and personal direction. Normal schools 
have insisted for some fifty years on such work in the 



MATHEMATICS 143 

preparation of elementary teachers. Even more neces- 
sary is this actual preliminary experience in school- 
room environment for college students as they are fur- 
ther removed from their school-days. The recognition 
of the need for observation and practice teaching, as well 
as definite instruction in methods of teaching mathe- 
matics for those preparing to teach in our secondary 
schools, cannot be long deferred. Indeed, the organi- 
zation of schools of education in so many of our large 
universities heralds the near approach of the day when our 
high school teachers will have, not only the wider prep- 
aration in subject-matter so absolutely essential for a 
larger outlook, but also some definite scientific prepara- 
tion for the delicate operations and the essentially psycho- 
logical insight required in mathematical teaching. 

A formulation of requirements in mathematics is made 
by a committee of the American Mathematical Society 
in co-operation with committees of the National Educa- 
tion Association. This programme has been adopted 
by the New York State Education Department (1910), 
the College Entrance Examination Board, and other 
organizations. 

Elementary Algebra. — The four fundamental operations 
for rational algebraic expressions. 

Factoring, determination of highest common factor and 
lowest common multiple by factoring. 

Fractions, including complex fractions, and ratio and 
proportion. 

Linear equations, both numerical and literal, contain- 
ing one or more unknown quantities. 

Problems depending upon linear equations. 

Radicals, including the extraction of the square root 
of polynomials and of numbers. 



144 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Exponents, including the fractional and negative. 

Quadratic equations, both numerical and literal. 

Simple cases of equations with one or more unknown 
quantities, that can be solved by the methods of linear 
or quadratic equations. 

Problems depending upon quadratic equations. 

The binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. 

The formulas for the nth term and the sum of the terms 
of arithmetical and geometric progressions, with applica- 
tions. 

It is assumed that pupils will be required throughout 
the course to solve numerous problems which involve 
putting questions into equations. Some of these prob- 
lems should be chosen from mensuration, from physics, 
and from commercial life. The use of graphical meth- 
ods and illustrations, particularly in connection with the 
solution of equations, is also expected. 

Advanced Algebra. — Permutations and combinations, 
limited to simple cases. Complex numbers, with graph- 
ical representation of sums and differences. 

Determinants, chiefly of the second, third, and fourth 
orders, including the use of minors and the solution of 
linear equations. 

Numerical equations of higher degree, and so much 
of the theory of equations, with graphical methods, as is 
necessary for their treatment, including Descartes' rule 
of signs and Horner's method, but not Sturm's functions 
or multiple roots. 

Plane Geometry. — The usual theorems and construc- 
tions of good text-books, including the general properties 
of plane rectilinear figures; the circle and the measure- 
ment of angles; similar polygons; areas; regular poly- 
gons and the measurement of the circle. 



MATHEMATICS 145 

The solution of numerous original exercises, including 
loci problems. 

Applications to the mensuration of lines and plane sur- 
faces. 

Solid Geometry. — The usual theorems and construc- 
tions of good text-books, including the relations of planes 
and lines in space; the properties and measurement of 
prisms, pyramids, cylinders, and cones; the sphere and 
the spherical triangle. 

The solution of numerous original exercises, including 
loci problems. 

Applications to the mensuration of surfaces and solids. 

Trigonometry. — Definitions and relations of the six 
trigonometric functions as ratios; circular measurement 
of angles. 

Proofs of principal formulas, in particular for the sine, 
cosine, and tangent of the sum and the difference of two 
angles, the product expressions for the sum or the differ- 
ence of two sines or of two cosines, etc. ; the transforma- 
tion of trigonometric expressions by means of these for- 
mulas. 

Solution of trigonometric equations of a simple char- 
acter. 

Theory and use of logarithms (without the introduc- 
tion of work involving infinite series). 

The solution of right and oblique triangles and practi- 
cal applications, including the solution of right spherical 
triangles. 

Plane Trigonometry. — This subject is the same as the 
preceding except that no topics from spherical trigonom- 
etry are included. 



CHAPTER VII 
PHYSICS 

Frederick Edward Kester, Ph.D. 
head op department op physics, university op kansas 

Elements of Interest to Student. — Before the subject- 
matter of modern physics had become so specialized as 
to take its place as one of the natural sciences, the "phi- 
losophers" of this "calling" were accustomed to go far 
afield in their search for material. It would be difficult 
to decide, in an attempt to understand the motives which 
urged them ahead in the search, whether these were more 
nearly akin to the motives of the hunter or to those of 
the explorer. That both incentives are present, and 
that both serve this end, are fairly evident; both the ela- 
tion in the contemplation of new lands, of new and 
broader views, and the glow of the hunter with the game 
at his feet are the just dues of the follower of nature's 
truths. The motive force of the student of modern 
specialized science, no less than that of the earlier "nat- 
ural philosopher," has in it a large element of the Wissens- 
drang of the explorer, and the other element of the excite- 
ment of the chase. 

Running beside these two elements, always in close 
co-operation with them, is another line of activity, with 
its effects far more noticeable in our modern sciences 
than in their predecessors, namely the correlation of the 
landmarks already discovered and studied — the general- 

146 



PHYSICS 147 

ization of our gathered material into laws and principles 
of science. In no other field of intellectual work is this 
process better exemplified than in physics. So well de- 
veloped are the fundamental laws of this science and so 
solidly founded its important theories, that even the long 
reaches into new lands which have been made within the 
last two decades, and the strange and wonderful phenom- 
ena brought back from the new territory, have served 
more to strengthen and to unify these theories than to 
disconcert them. 

It is the generalizing method of physics which Mach, 
in his "Mechanics," praises so highly for the principle 
of economy inherent in it. As he makes so clear, it is 
the economy of representing in mental picture an actual 
experience which gives science its main justification for 
existence; it saves us the time and trouble of re-expe- 
riencing on every occasion a phenomenon of nature, by 
representing the experience to our minds in terms of a 
general law. We see, from this point of view, an expla- 
nation of the trend of which the subject-matter of modern 
science is indicative. As an instance, we find an ex- 
planation of the existence of the wonderfully simple laws 
of refraction of light which express all of the exceedingly 
complex and beautiful phenomena attendant upon the 
passage of light from one medium to another. We have, 
as well, an explanation of the existence of a theory which 
shall expound the real significance of the laws of refrac- 
tion — explanation for the hard struggle, even, by which 
this wave theory of light was gradually brought out of 
the mere haze of faltering hypothesis into its present 
firmly established position. Such explanation acts as a 
powerful sustainer and guide for the interest and enthu- 
siasm of a student of science: for this reason alone the 



148 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

reading of the section on the "Economy of Science," 
in Mach, would be worth as much as the command of 
one of the broad and masterful generalizations of the 
science. 

The Seven Ultimate Concepts. — As we follow, in the 
study of physics, the play of forces, now on masses, now 
on quantities of electricity, producing sometimes merely 
strains, at other times motions, and as we follow the 
streaming of energy, here as light, there as electromag- 
netic waves, again as convection currents carrying heat 
in their paths, we meet repeatedly the "ultimate con- 
cepts" of space and time, mass and inertia, electricity 
and ether, and of energy as the result of the interactions of 
the others. Still other concepts than these seven we en- 
counter along the way, but they lead us on, in each case, 
to one or more of the "ultimate concepts" 1 just enumer- 
ated. 

Strange to say, the remarkable growth of physics dur- 
ing the last two decades did not necessitate the introduc- 
tion of any new concept into this group of seven; indeed 
the new phenomena, which have been brought into the 
science since Roentgen's discovery of the radiations now 
bearing his name, have served to draw the former group 
into closer relationship, and if any change occurs in their 
number as a result of this development it would seem, 
more probably, to be the incorporation of two or three of 
them into one. After the spirit of physics had brought, 
during the past century, the older concepts of magnetism 
and of frictional electricity and the newer one of current 
electricity into their present relationship, and had proved 
that the phenomena of radiant heat and light belong to 

1 See Nichols, E. F., on "Physics," Popular Science Monthly, 72, 323; 
1908. 



PHYSICS 149 

the same family, its next great move was to prove an in- 
timate kinship between electricity and matter.- 

Seen from this point of view, physics presents an ad- 
mirably well organized front to the observer. That so 
great a part of the many and multiform physical hap- 
penings of our every-day life, whether they occur within 
doors or in the open, whether in the city or in the field, 
should be reducible in their interpretations to so few 
terms, is truly incitement to wonder and admiration. It 
is a point of view to which we should return again and 
again with our classes when we tire of the detailed con- 
sideration of the laws of the science. 

What Physics Has Accomplished. — Not to the "inner 
organization" alone of physics are we limited in our 
admiration; its accomplishments, for our comforts, our 
necessities, and for our health, are even marvellous. We 
have been accustomed for years to the praises of our 
telephones, our telegraphs, our steam-engines, until now 
the tendency is to take these and innumerable other 
developments as matters of course. Of late years, how- 
ever, we have been amazed again by the throbbing of 
wireless electric signals across an ocean, using the physi- 
cist's ether as a medium and the ocean's waves as a guid- 
ing surface — we have been amazed to see the structure 
of the atom taking form under the searching gaze of the 
electron theory. Now all of these things, old and new, 
are the children of the science of physics, children brought 
to full stature by the dauntless courage and energy of men 
who saw visions of their usefulness to the human race. 

Moral Value of Physics. — Nor is the purely practical 
advantage, of which we hear so much in these days, 
obtained from knowledge of physical laws and principles 
through the better control of the physical phenomena 



150 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

surrounding us in every-day life — through applications to 
engineering and to the industries — the only one worthy 
of notice. In common with all sciences the training in 
physics has a moral value. It emphasizes the fact that 
truth only counts toward the building up of science; that 
falsehood is not only valueless in this regard, but posi- 
tively harmful, since it requires frequently the expendi- 
ture of more energy to kill it than was used to put it into 
existence, so that there is the double waste of effort which, 
properly used at the start, would have brought us far 
along in the pursuit. There is also, I believe, a develop- 
ment of conscience to be got from the careful statement 
of exact laws, to be got as well from the careful manipu- 
lation of apparatus in our laboratories. It is, indeed, 
difficult to see how a student, if he has entered at all into 
the spirit of this science, can come away from the study 
of it without an increased appreciation of downright 
honesty. 

Status of Physics in High Schools. — Whatever may be 
the judgment of others concerning these last claims, all 
firm believers in the general educational qualifications 
of physics will rejoice in the gradual change which has 
come about in the status of the subject in the high school 
curriculum; for the increase in the amount of time 
allotted to the subject, and the fairly general recognition 
and adoption of the advantages of laboratory training, 
these, with the marked improvement in the scientific at- 
mosphere emanating from the available text-books, must 
all serve to increase the effectiveness of the science for 
that great group of citizens who come out from our high 
schools. 

Character of Early Instruction. — Under the name 
natural philosophy something approximating the present 



PHYSICS 151 

subject-matter of physics was taught in the secondary- 
schools of America as early as the middle of the past cen- 
tury. We have available fairly definite evidence of the 
character of the work done thus early, from an examina- 
tion of the text-books which have been handed down to 
us from that period. Though the subject-matter of these 
text-books differs not greatly, in the topics discussed, 
from that of more recent ones, the method of treatment 
is decidedly different. From a method essentially in- 
forming in character, by which the authors of the older 
books gave, mainly in dogmatic statements, the laws of 
physics along with many interesting but unrelated facts 
of the science, all with little or no indication of the ex- 
perimental processes by which this scientific material 
had been developed, there is a far cry to the method of 
approach as followed by recent writers; their studies of 
the subject are, generally speaking, logical in character, 
and the spirit of the experimental method of the science 
seems evident throughout. From the quantity of ma- 
terial handled in the older texts one can judge that the 
relative importance of the subject in the curriculum was 
not what the science, by just right, could claim even in 
those days. 

Introduction of Laboratory Instruction. — The labora- 
tory feature of the secondary school treatment was not 
introduced until late in the seventies; a very few high 
schools pretended in 1880 to give any laboratory instruc- 
tion to their students. Yet something of the spirit of the 
laboratory must have been in the air in those days, for 
when Gage's "Elements of Physics" appeared in the 
early eighties, fairly well imbued with the idea of individ- 
ual experimentation, it acquired wide use and influence 
largely because of this very feature. It was about this 



152 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

time (1886 by actual record) that Harvard College began 
to lead the colleges and universities of the country by 
an entrance requirement of laboratory instruction. The 
innovation was made in a very radical manner, we must 
judge, when we consider the decided change made there- 
by in the former attitude toward the subject. The em- 
phasis was laid almost wholly on laboratory instruction, 
with little apparent recognition of the fact that the out- 
look on the science, got from laboratory work alone, 
must be somewhat fragmentary; there was not available 
the amount of time necessary for the large number of in- 
dividual experiments which would cover the field satis- 
factorily. The change was too radical indeed; in 1897 
Harvard modified its specifications as to the form of ele- 
mentary physics which it would recognize, laying more 
stress upon text discussions and lecture demonstrations. 

The spread of the laboratory idea in the West pro- 
ceeded with more deliberation. The high schools of the 
country have very generally admitted the principle of 
this conception — in a few, unfortunately, more freely 
than they have admitted the practice — and although the 
development is considerably short of ideal, yet the state 
of affairs, generally, has the advantage and the strength 
which are the result of steady growth. There are, of 
course, some of our high schools (too many, indeed) in 
which the laboratory feature is so little developed that it 
stands now more as a pretence and as an excuse for a 
sham relationship of these schools with neighboring col- 
leges and universities, than as a device of real educational 
value in physics. 

Requirements in Physics. — The high school unit of 
physics, as it is defined by the various teachers' associa- 
tions of the United States, may be said fairly to be a 



PHYSICS 153 

satisfactory standard for our schools with their present 
organization. The specifications of the unit, with con- 
siderable uniformity, call for a treatment of the subject 
in five regular periods a week throughout the usual school 
year. Commonly four of these periods (of the usual 
forty-five minutes) are spent in the class work of demon- 
strations, recitations, and problems, while the other, a 
double period, is spent in laboratory work. This prac- 
tice is in keeping" with the specification that thirty or 
forty experiments, predominantly quantitative in char- 
acter, should be performed by each student during the 
course. Not infrequently the arrangement is found in 
which three periods are used for the class work and two 
double periods for the laboratory. There is much to be 
said in favor of the latter arrangement of the course, and 
yet the choice between the two cannot be made fairly 
without due consideration of the other subjects in the 
school curriculum. A course in chemistry, generally 
with a large part of its work done in the laboratory, 
imparting thereby considerable manipulative skill, and 
even well-organized courses in manual training, if these 
precede the physics course, would lead one to choose the 
former apportionment of periods between the class and 
laboratory. 

In this connection some consideration of the qualities 
of the laboratory and class-room features may aid us, not 
only in determining the amounts of each to be incorpo- 
rated in the course, but also in developing a well-balanced 
treatment of the content when the adjustment between 
the two parts has once been made. The laboratory work, 
mainly quantitative in character, accompanied with a 
well-kept note-book, is essential to a concrete and de- 
tailed understanding of physical laws; from no other 



154 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

part of the course can our pupils gain first-hand knowl- 
edge of the foundations of the science. But the labora- 
tory does not offer a rapid method of mastering the laws 
and principles of physics, although it does offer an in- 
tensive method. With a given amount of time available 
for the course, the usual arrangement of its content is 
made as a compromise between a well-rounded develop- 
ment of the subject and a thorough understanding of 
disconnected parts. Just where the line of adjustment is 
to be drawn depends largely upon local conditions — upon 
the presence or absence of related and contributory sub- 
jects in the same school, and even upon the interests of 
the community in which the school is located. For the 
laboratory work by the pupil and the demonstrations by 
the instructor should be so correlated as to bring to the 
pupil as complete an appreciation of the experimental 
development of the subject-matter as is possible with the 
equipment of the school. At no time should we lose sight 
of the fact that physics is an experimental science and 
needs, therefore, for its proper development, as much 
of experimental treatment as we can give it. Now the 
ability of the pupil to comprehend fully the significance 
of a demonstration experiment, which is performed not 
directly by himself, depends considerably upon the train- 
ing which he has had as a child at play, upon the train- 
ing which he has unconsciously acquired in the every- 
day life of his community, and again, among many other 
things, upon the training which he has received in the 
previous courses of his school career. The more the 
previous life of the child has led him to think in terms 
of the relations and processes of the physical world, the 
more apt he will be in realizing the full significance of 
demonstration experiments, and indeed of such text and 



PHYSICS 155 

class discussions as are given without these illustrations. 
In an industrial community, where the daily content 
of thought of the people is predominantly mechanical, 
the main burden of the conversation of the home perhaps 
of physical import, in cities where one meets such varied 
and striking applications of physical principles, the teach- 
ing of this science presents a decidedly different problem 
from that which one encounters in a rural or in a com- 
mercial community. It is in these last named eviron- 
ments that the teaching of physics and chemistry needs 
every concrete aid which possibly can be given; it is 
here that the plan of giving up two double periods of the 
week to laboratory instruction, leaving three single periods 
for recitations and demonstrations, will find its greatest 
opportunity. In a commercial locality, particularly, the 
instructor will find fewer physical conceptions common 
upon which he can draw for the proper illumination of 
his discussions and demonstrations. Here many con- 
crete examples of fundamental principles will require 
careful treatment, while in an industrial community 
they would appear self-evident. A requirement of brief 
lecture notes from the pupils, to outline the salient points 
of each demonstration — say, the object of the experiment, 
the apparatus used, and the conclusion to be drawn from 
the conduct of the experiment — will serve to bring a con- 
crete idea of the significance of a phenomenon which 
has developed outside of the pupil's own control. With- 
out this aid, the idea may take the indefinite form so 
often characteristic of second-hand experiences. 

The Physics Unit. — As examples of the specifications 
of the physics unit, which have been made by the vari- 
ous teachers' organizations throughout the country, 
may be given the definition by the North Central As- 



156 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

sociation of Colleges and Secondary Schools, made in 
1908, and that by the College Entrance Examination 
Board, made in 1909. Variations from these defini- 
tions may be noted in the cases of several later ones, 
but for most part the variations are in unessential feat- 
ures. I quote here the text of the definition adopted 
by the North Central Association on recommendation 
of its committee which was appointed for the purpose 
of discussing this problem: 

THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION'S DEFINITION OF 
THE UNIT IN PHYSICS 

"1. The unit in physics consists of at least one hun- 
dred and eighty periods of forty-five minutes each (equal 
to one hundred and thirty-five hours) of assigned work. 
Two periods of laboratory work count as one of assigned 
work. 

"2. The work consists of three closely related parts; 
namely, class work, lecture-demonstration work, and 
laboratory work. At least one-fourth of the time shall 
be devoted to laboratory work. 

"3. It is very essential that double periods be arranged 
for the laboratory work. 

"4. The class work includes the study of at least one 
standard text. 

"5. In the laboratory each student shall perform at 
least thirty individual experiments, and keep a careful 
note-book record of them. Twenty of these experi- 
ments must be quantitative; each of these must illus- 
trate an important physical principle which is one of the 
starred topics in the syllabus of required topics, and no 
two must illustrate the same principle. 



PHYSICS 157 

"6. In the class work the student must be drilled to 
an understanding of the use of the general principles 
which make up the required syllabus. He must be able 
to apply these principles intelligently to the solution of 
simple, practical, concrete problems. 

"7. Examinations will be framed to test the student's 
understanding of and ability to use the general principles 
in the required syllabus, as indicated in 6. 

"8. The teacher is not expected to follow the order 
of topics in the syllabus unless he wishes to do so." 

SYLLABUS OF REQUIRED TOPICS 

This list of required topics is not intended to include all the ma- 
terial for the year's work. It is purposely made short, in order that 
each teacher may be free to supplement it in a way that fits his in- 
dividual environment. It does include those topics which all agree 
are essential to a first course in physics, and which are capable of 
comprehension, at least to the extent specified in number 6 of the 
definition of the unit, by boys and girls of high school age. 

*i. Weight, centre of gravity. 
*2. Density. 

♦3. Parallelogram of forces. 
4. Atmospheric pressure; barometer. 
*5. Boyle's law. 

6. Pressure due to gravity in liquids with a free surface; vary- 
ing depth, density, and shape of vessel. 
♦7. Buoyancy; Archimedes' principle. 
*8. Pascal's law; hydraulic press. 

9. Work as force times distance, and its measurement in foot- 
pounds, and gram-centimetres. 

10. Energy measure by work. 

*n. Law of machines; work obtained not greater than work 

put in; efficiency. 

*i2. Inclined plane. 

♦13. Pulleys, wheel, and axle. 



158 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

*i4. Measurement of moments by the product of force times 
arm; levers. 

15. Thermometers; Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales. 

16. Heat quantity and its measurement in gram calories. 
*i7- Specific heat. 

*i8. Evaporation; heat of vaporization of water. 

*i9. Dew point; clouds and rain. 

*2o. Fusion and solidification; heat of fusion. 

21. Heat transference by conduction and convection. 

22. Heat transference by radiation. 

23. Qualitative description of the transfer of energy by waves. 

24. Wave length and period of waves. 

25. Sound originates at a vibrating body and is transmitted by 
waves in air. 

*26. Pitch and period of sound. 

♦27. Relation between the wave length of a tone and the length 
of a string or organ pipe. 

*28. Resonance. 

29. Beats. 

30. Rectilinear propagation of light; pin-hole camera. 
*3i. Reflection and its laws; image of a plane mirror. 
*32. Refraction, and its use in lenses; the eye, the camera. 
*^. Prisms and dispersion. 

34. Velocity of light. 

35. Magnetic attractions and repulsions. 
*36. Field of force about a magnet. 

37. The earth a magnet; compass. 

38. Electricity by friction. 

39. Conductors and insulators. 
*40. Simple galvanic cell. 

*4i. Electrolysis; definition of the ampere. 

*42. Heating effects; resistance; definition of the ohm. 

*43- Ohm's law; a definition of the volt. 

*44. Magnetic field about a current; electromagnets. 

*45- Electromagnetic induction. 

*46. Simple alternating current dynamo of one loop. 

*47. Electromagnetic induction by breaking a circuit; primary 
and secondary. 

48. Conservation of energy. 



PHYSICS 159 

The text of the definition, adopted by the College En- 
trance Examination Board on recommendation of its 
committee of secondary school teachers, is as follows: 

the college entrance examination board's 
definition 

General Statement. 

i. The Unit in Physics consists of at least one hun- 
dred and twenty hours of sixty minutes each. Time 
spent in the laboratory shall be counted at one-half its 
face value. 

2. The Course of Instruction in Physics should in- 
clude: 

(a) The study of one standard text-book, for the pur- 
pose of obtaining a connected and comprehensive view 
of the subject. The student should be given opportu- 
nity and encouragement to consult other scientific litera- 
ture. 

(b) Instruction by lecture table demonstrations to be 
used mainly for illustration of the facts and phenomena 
of physics in their qualitative aspects and in their prac- 
tical applications. 

(c) Individual laboratory work consisting of experi- 
ments requiring at least the time of thirty double periods. 
The experiments performed by each student should 
number at least thirty. Those named in the appended 
list are suggested as suitable. The work should be so 
distributed as to give a wide range of observation and 
practice. 

The aim of laboratory work should be to supplement 
the pupil's fund of concrete knowledge and to cultivate 
his power of accurate observation and clearness of thought 



160 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and expression. The exercises should be chosen with a 
view to furnishing forceful illustrations of fundamental 
principles and their practical applications. They should 
be such as yield results capable of ready interpretation, 
obviously in conformity with theory, and free from the 
disguise of unintelligible units. 

Slovenly work should not be tolerated, but the effort 
for precision should not lead to the use of apparatus or 
processes so complicated as to obscure the principle in- 
volved. 

3. Throughout the whole course special attention 
should be paid to the common illustrations of physical 
laws and to their industrial applications. 

4. In the solution of numerical problems, the student 
should be encouraged to make use of the simple princi- 
ples of algebra and geometry, to reduce the difficulties of 
solution. Unnecessary mathematical difficulties should 
be avoided and care should be exercised to prevent the 
student's losing sight of the concrete facts, in the manip- 
ulation of symbols. 

SYLLABUS 

The following is a list of topics which are deemed fundamental 
and which should therefore be included in every well-planned course 
of elementary physics. Only a few of the most important applica- 
tions of these topics have been mentioned; teachers should add lib- 
erally to them. It is expected that the teacher will arrange these 
topics in such order as to suit his individual needs. 

I. Introduction. 

A. Metric System. 

Linear measure, units: — metre, centimetre, millimetre. 
Square measure — square centimetre. 
Cubic measure — cubic centimetre, litre. 
Mass: — kilogram, gram. 



PHYSICS 161 

B. Volume, weight, density. 

C. States of matter: solids, liquids, gases. 

II. Mechanics. 

Fluids. 

A. Pascal's Law of Fluid Pressure. The hydraulic press. 

B. Pressure due to gravity. 

Pressure varying with depth and density of the liquid. 
Total pressure on the bottom of a vessel. 

C. Principle of Archimedes. 

D. Specific gravity of solids and liquids. 

E. Gases — relation between pressure and volume. 

F. Atmospheric pressure, buoyancy, the barometer, pumps 

for liquids and gases. 
Solids. 

A. Principle of moments. 

Parallelogram of forces. (Resolution of forces, rectan- 
gular only.) 

B. Newton's Laws of Motion. 

Force, momentum, velocity, acceleration. 

Uniformly accelerated motion, when initial or final 

velocity is zero. 
Falling bodies. 

C. Mechanical work. 

Energy — potential and kinetic. 
Conservation of energy. 

D. Machines: Principle of work applied to machines, me- 

chanical advantage, friction, efficiency. (Use terms, 
effort and resistance.) 
Lever, wheel and axle, pulleys, inclined plane. 

E. Uniform circular motion; centrifugal and centripetal 

forces qualitatively illustrated. 

F. Law of universal gravitation. 
Relation of weight to mass. 
Centre of gravity. 
Stability. 

III. Heat. 

A. Heat — a form of energy. 

Temperature, Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales. 

B. Conduction, convection, and radiation. 



162 



HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 



IV. 



D. 



E. 
F. 

Sound. 
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 

Light. 
A. 



C. 



D. 



Expansion of solids, coefficient of linear expansion. 
Expansion of liquids, anomalous expansion of water. 
Expansion of gases, Law of Charles, absolute zero. 
Change of state. 
Fusion, the melting-point. 
Vaporization, boiling, evaporation. 
Measurement of heat, latent and specific heat. 
Mechanical equivalent of heat. 



Nature and origin of sound. 

Pitch, loudness, quality. 

Velocity. 

Reflection of sound, echoes. 

Resonance. 



Definitions: 

Light, luminous bodies, illuminated bodies, transpar- 
ent, translucent, and opaque bodies. 

Rectilinear propagation of light in a homogeneous 
medium, shadows, pinhole camera. 

Photometry. 

Intensity of light (source) and intensity of illumina- 
tion distinguished. 

Law of inverse squares. 

Reflection. 

Law of reflection. Regular and diffused reflection. 

Plane and spherical mirrors, position and character of 
images. 

Refraction. 

Laws of refraction (qualitative). 

Refraction by plates, prisms, and lenses. 

Lenses: Converging and diverging, conjugate foci, 
principal focus, principal axis. 

Position and character of real and virtual images 
formed by converging lenses. 

Dispersion, color, and the spectrum. 

Applications: The camera, the human eye, the com- 
pound microscope, the telescope. 



PHYSICS 163 

VI. Magnetism. 

A. Magnets, permanent and temporary. 

B. Polarity, magnetic attraction and repulsion. 

C. Magnetic induction, magnetic field and lines of force, 

permeability. 

D. The earth as a magnet, compass, declination, dip. 

VII. Static Electricity. 

A. Electrification by friction; two kinds of. 

B. Electrical attraction and repulsion; electroscopes. 

C. Conductors and insulators; electrification by induc- 

tion. 

D. Condensers. 

VIII. Current Electricity. 

A. Simple voltaic cell. 
Electro-chemical action. 

Local action and polarization; prevention of polariza- 
tion. 

B. Types of cells (Daniell, Leclanche"). 

C. Electrolysis. 
The ampere. 

Electrolysis of water, electro-deposition of metals. 
Storage cell. 

D. Electro-magnetism. 
Magnetic field around a current. 

Relation between direction of current and lines of 

magnetic force. 
Electro-magnets, ampere turns (qualitative). 
The electric bell and the telegraph. 

E. Resistance. 
The ohm. 
Ohm's Law. 
The volt. 

Power: — the watt and watt hour. 

F. Heating effects. 

Fuse wire and electric heater. 
Arc and incandescent lamps. 

G. Measuring instruments; galvanometer, ammeter, volt- 

meter, resistance box. 



164 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

H. Series and parallel connection of cells, lamps, etc. 
I. Fall of potential in a circuit. 
J. Electro-magnetic induction. 

Direction and magnitude of the induced electromotive 

force. 
Simple two-pole dynamo and motor. 
Simple alternating and direct current generator. 
Transformer, induction coil, telephone. 

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 
Mechanics. 

i. Weight of unit volume of a substance, prism or cylinder. 

2. Principle of Archimedes. 

3. Specific gravity of a solid body that will sink in water. 

4. Specific gravity of a liquid; two methods (bottle and dis- 

placement methods). 
Or, 

5. Specific gravity of a liquid by balancing columns. 

6. Boyle's Law. 

7. Density of air. 

8. Hooke's Law. 

9. Strength of materials. 

10. The straight lever, principle of moments. 

11. Centre of gravity and weight of a lever. 

12. Parallelogram of forces. 

13. Four forces at right angles in one plane. 

14. Coefficient of friction between solid bodies — on a level and 

by sliding on an incline. 

15. Efficiency test of some elementary machine, either pulley, 

inclined plane, or wheel and axle. 

16. Laws of the pendulum. 

17. Laws of accelerated motion. 

Heat. 

18. The mercury thermometer: Relation between pressure of 

steam and its temperature. 

19. Linear expansion of a solid. 

20. Increase of pressure of a gas heated at constant volume. 
Or, 

21. Increase of volume of a gas heated at constant pressure. 



PHYSICS 165 

22. Heat of fusion of ice. 

23. Cooling curve through change of state (during solidification). 

24. Heat of vaporization of water. 

25. Determination of the dew point. 

26. Specific heat of a solid. 

Sound. 

27. Velocity of sound. 

28. Wave length of sound. 

29. Number of vibrations of a tuning fork. 

Light. 
30- 
3 1 - 
3 2 - 
33- 
34- 



Use of photometer. 

Images in a plane mirror. 

Images formed by a convex mirror. 

Images formed by a concave mirror. 

Index of refraction of glass; 

Or, 

Index of refraction of water. 

Focal length and conjugate foci of a converging lens. 

Shape and size of a real image formed by a lens. 

Magnifying power of a lens. 

Construction of model of telescope or compound microscope. 



Magnetism and Electricity. 

40. Study of magnetic field. 

41. Magnetic induction. 

42. Study of a single fluid voltaic cell. 

43. Study of a two-fluid voltaic cell. 

44. Magnetic effect of an electric current. 

45. Electrolysis. 

46. Laws of electrical resistance of wires: Various lengths cross 

section and in parallel. 

47. Resistance measured by volt-ammeter method. 

48. Resistance measured by Wheatstone's bridge. 

49. Battery resistance — combination of cells. 

50. Study of induced currents. 

51. Power or efficiency test of a small electric motor. 

Chief Aim of Instruction. — In any community the con- 
stant and vigorous effort on the part of the instructor 



166 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

should be to relate the science directly to the life of the 
pupil, not only to that part earlier than his high school 
career, but to his life of after years as well. The plan of 
bringing forcibly to the pupil's mind numerous practical 
and interesting applications of the laws and principles of 
physics, in order that his interest in the work may be 
maintained and that he may be able to make the best use 
of the subject-matter of the course in later years, is one of 
utmost importance, one that is quite generally appreci- 
ated if we may judge by the unanimity of the opinions 
expressed in the numerous discussions on the teaching of 
physics. These illustrations, naturally, should be drawn 
from the interesting features of the locality. When prop- 
erly used, no device of teaching can be found more potent 
than this to give a due appreciation of the importance of 
physics. 

Development of Subject. — Another feature of the class 
work, which has great possibilities in awakening and sus- 
taining the interest of our pupils, one of undoubted edu- 
cational value is the tracing of the development of the 
various parts of the subject, attention to be given to the 
trend of present growth as well as to the more evident 
development in the past. Were we able to state at this 
time that all of the discussions contained in a modern 
text-book on physics are on such firm foundations as 
would allow them to be designated as laws and principles, 
probably one of the chiefest claims of the science to the 
interest of its students would be withdrawn. Much as 
we admire the rigor and solidity of those parts of the 
science which have grown into well-established laws, with 
none the less interest do we watch its growth as a whole, 
frequently to find that newer and weaker members are 
adding their growth to that of the parent stock, increasing 



PHYSICS 167 

thereby its strength and value. The fact that it is found 
necessary for the proper growth of a science to lop off, 
from time to time, some of these minor branches, because 
they cannot attain the strength and solidity of natural 
laws, argues nothing against their right to recognition, as 
well as to existence, while weak. Did not the very laws 
and principles upon which we now so thoroughly rely take 
their start as weak and timid extensions from the main 
stock? And did not the other tentative branches, even 
though they were compelled to fall in the course of time, 
add something of strength while they existed ? 

The interest which is stimulated in us by the realiza- 
tion of the fact that the science is a growing organism is 
too vital and too valuable to be set lightly aside; the 
effect, which such interest can have on the attitude of our 
pupils toward physics, is too important to be neglected. 
A very appreciable part of the enthusiasm, which one 
accumulates as he works his way through a science, is got 
from forward glimpses toward the direction of its growth. 
And is there not an equal advantage in keeping constantly 
in mind the process by which this or that great truth has 
been developed ? — in seeing how, as in the past the science 
grew, one after another of its branches was added and 
strengthened? How much more do the laws of falling 
bodies mean to all of us after we learn what methods were 
used, and what difficulties overcome, by Galileo. The 
laws of uniformly accelerated motion, to use them again 
to make this point clear, furnish an excellent example of 
the generalizing which it is the function of physics to 
stimulate. In their elementary form they present a front 
of logic and of definition altogether admirable, even if 
our admiration is accompanied by little warmth of feel- 
ing; but the accompaniment of enthusiasm easily follows 



168 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

on our part, and on the part of our students, after we have 
read such an account of Galileo's researches as is given, 
for instance, in abbreviated form in Mach's "Mechanics." 

Criticism of Present Course IU-Founded. — The fear, ex- 
pressed again and again in numerous discussions on the 
teaching of physics in our high schools, that the course, 
as it is now generally defined, is not accomplishing the 
ends desirable for the general pupil, but is designed rather 
to fulfil the requirements for college and university en- 
trance, seems to me to be ill-founded. Any lack of ac- 
complishment — and we are all compelled to admit this 
deficiency for some schools — would seem to be due to an 
improper handling of the course rather than to poor de- 
sign in the content. That in some schools the laboratory 
work is so conducted as to deserve the name of a " starva- 
tion course in measurements" argues not so much against 
the definition of the laboratory feature of the course as 
against the conception, of the teachers of these schools, 
of the real educational significance of the laboratory 
function. 

There is no reason for the use of apparatus so complex 
and so delicate, and at the same time so difficult of manage- 
ment, that the student must be more concerned with its 
manipulation than with the physical interpretation of the 
experiment. The use of a good grade of spring balance 
for the determination of the specific gravity of chunks of 
metal, or of a stone, would be preferable to the far more 
expensive equipment for this experiment in many schools. 
In no part of the equipment of a school is there better 
chance for good judgment than in the choice of appara- 
tus for its science laboratories. For any experiment that 
apparatus is best which has the simplest design and great- 
est ease of manipulation. That method of experimenting 



PHYSICS 169 

is always best which flies in a simple line straight from the 
shoulder to the result aimed at. 

A second advantage in the choice of simple apparatus 
lies in the ease of equipping these schools which have in- 
adequate resources for their laboratories. I am not mak- 
ing, by these statements, an excuse for cheap or shoddy 
apparatus. By all means, the equipment of our labora- 
tories should be good, substantial, and trustworthy — such 
as will command the respect of our pupils — but elaborate 
and delicate of manipulation it ought not to be. I should 
like, in this connection, to make a plea for such equip- 
ment as will bring to the attention of the pupil quantities 
really appreciable to the senses — for the use in the labora- 
tory of masses of several hundred grams, or of a pound or 
two, instead of five or ten grams — for the statement of 
problems in the class room, for all that, in terms of rea- 
sonable quantities instead of in terms of such insignificant 
masses and forces as would keep the pupil from seeing 
the true relationship of the magnitudes involved. 

The further claim that the use of algebra and geometry, 
to express the quantitative relations handled in the class 
room or in the laboratory, serves only to confuse the 
progress of the pupils, and that they use their mathe- 
matics merely as a tool for the obtaining of certain results 
which would be reached better by reasoning, is one fre- 
quently advanced. There is, indeed, some ground for 
the fear that pupils will accept a mere symbol with which 
to work rather than the definite physical concept for 
which it stands; but the function of a physics teacher is 
to see that proper physical concepts shall be formed. 
With this accomplished, the distance which the pupil can 
go in the science, in a given time and with a given amount 
of energy, with the aid of his algebra and geometry, is 



170 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

far beyond his reach without this aid. The instructor 
should keep in mind always the fact that the mathemat- 
ical part of physics is a device for the economy of energy 
rather than an end in itself. No better field than physics 
can be found for the concrete application of the simple 
processes of high school algebra and geometry. The 
trouble under discussion does exist — I have met the re- 
sults often enough — but the solution of the difficulty lies 
in strengthening the course by the use of better text-books 
and by better training of our teachers, rather than in the 
further weakening of the course through dilution of its 
content. 

It would be only fair to indicate here that such criti- 
cisms of the present (common) physics course as I have 
noticed in the preceding paragraphs do lead in many 
cases to suggestions of excellent changes in the conduct 
and content of the course. I cannot do this in any better 
way than to incorporate in this discussion a short article 
on the physics unit which appears in the 191 1 Bulletin 
for High Schools issued from the office of the State Super- 
intendent of Public Schools of Kansas. The article was 
written by Professor C. R. Mann, of the University of 
Chicago. 

"Physics, as a subject for high school instruction, has a 
double advantage. It is not only so intimately related to 
the pupils' daily lives that they already possess a large 
range of concrete experience on which to base their 
work, but it also is essentially a science of measurement 
capable of training the pupils in quantitative thinking and 
in an appreciation of the value of definite, quantitative 
knowledge. It is both concrete and abstract — practical 
and theoretical. It therefore offers unlimited opportuni- 
ties of training pupils in the methods of thinking by which 



PHYSICS 171 

all real knowledge is obtained; and, conversely, of giving 
them greater control of their physical environment by 
teaching them how to apply the knowledge thus acquired 
to the world of practical affairs in which they must live. 

"In order that physics may realize the two distinctive 
ends just mentioned, it is essential that the pupils gain 
clear ideas of the meanings of the terms used as well as 
of the laws and principles developed. But the clearness 
with which a given idea or principle is grasped is usu- 
ally proportional to the number of familiar experiences 
which are associated with that idea or principle; and, 
conversely, the association of a large number of familiar 
experiences with an idea or a principle renders the appli- 
cation of that idea or principle to daily experiences much 
easier and more certain. Therefore, in teaching a physi- 
cal principle, it is not sufficient to introduce it and demon- 
strate it with a piece of unfamiliar apparatus on the lect- 
ure table or in the laboratory. If only this is done, the 
pupil will be left in the mental condition of the French- 
man whose only idea associated with the notion of specific 
gravity was two copper cylinders, one of which fitted in- 
side the other. 

"Successful teaching of physics requires both class work 
and laboratory work. These two kinds of work must 
supplement each other and the topics treated should be 
as far as is possible the same in both. Without the actual 
performing of experiments in class and laboratory, the 
text-book is almost meaningless, and is soon forgotten. 

"It is generally better to introduce a topic by means 
of informal discussion with the class concerning familiar 
experiences. For example, if the topic is specific grav- 
ity, the knowledge already in the possession of the class 
should first be called forth by means of questions con- 



172 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

cerning their experiences with floating and sinking of 
such familiar things as their own bodies, chips, corks, 
logs, cream, ice, stones, nails, lead keels, fishing sinkers, 
etc. 

" When the principle or idea under discussion has been 
brought out by such discussion, it should be defined or 
demonstrated by one or more experiments, and then fixed 
by requiring the solution of a number of simple, real, 
concrete problems. If the class work has been skilfully 
conducted, a number of problems or disputes will have 
arisen of a sort that can be settled only by making experi- 
ments and measurements. 

" The laboratory is the place in which to settle such 
problems and disputes. In the ideal case, the results of 
each laboratory experiment will solve some problem or 
settle some dispute, and the more concrete and signifi- 
cant the problem or the dispute, the greater the value 
of the work. For example, the pupils will probably get 
much more valuable training from the laboratory work 
in specific gravity if they be shown first a rectangular 
block of oak and be asked who can predict how high it will 
float out of water, than if the experiment is presented in 
the usual way, namely, 'Find the specific gravity of a 
rectangular solid body lighter than water.' In the first 
case a problem is presented, measurement is required 
for its solution, and the competitive sense is appealed to; 
in the second case there is no problem that has any sig- 
nificance to the pupils. 

"When the laboratory is used as a court of appeal where 
disputed points can be settled, the work there helps to 
fix in mind and to clarify principles besides giving dis- 
cipline in scientific thinking; but when it is used merely 
to determine the specific gravity of a body heavier than 



PHYSICS 173 

water, or that of a body lighter than water with a sinker, 
or of a liquid with a pyknometer, or of a liquid by Hare's 
method, etc., the work tends to give training in little 
beside the technique of the physicist. The work of the 
high school is to educate boys and girls, not to train re- 
search physicists. 

"Since the laboratory is the place to solve problems that 
cannot be solved without experiment and measurement, 
the most fruitful type of experiment is the one whose re- 
sult is not known in advance. The attempt to determine 
physical constants whose values are known with far 
greater accuracy than it is possible to hope for in an 
elementary laboratory is, to say the least, discouraging. 
Thus, the theoretical mechanical advantage of an in- 
clined plane or of a set of pulleys is known in advance; 
but the actual efficiency of a given plane or pulley is not 
known, but depends on how the machines are handled. 
If the student is asked, What is the greatest efficiency 
of this inclined plane? Is it greater with large load or 
with small load? he will probably get far more real 
training from his work than he will if asked to 'verify the 
law of the inclined plane.' In the former case he has a 
problem to solve, and the solution depends on what he is 
able to make the plane do; in the latter case he has to 
make his results tally with the theory. 

"Other similar problems that lead to significant and 
valuable laboratory work are: What is the maximum 
efficiency of a small water motor? Which kind of gas 
burner is most efficient on cook stoves? Which boy's 
electric motor is most efficient? How much more effi- 
cient is a tungsten lamp than a carbon lamp? What 
kind of a lens shall I get for a camera for making pictures 
for lantern slides? 



174 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

" Probably the most difficult task that confronts the 
physics teacher in the small high school is to start the 
equipment of a laboratory on small means. The first 
maxim is, buy for use and not for show. Buy the less 
expensive first. Get the necessities before the luxuries. 
Do not begin by the purchase of Geisler tubes and X-ray 
apparatus. Also, do not forget that the members of the 
class probably possess boats, motors, engines, telegraph 
outfits, and many other similar things which they are 
not only willing but eager to bring to class and explain. 
The local industries, shops, and factories also offer rich 
opportunity for making the work vital and significant. 

" In offering suggestions in regard to the equipment of a 
laboratory, let us begin with the room itself. This should 
be dry, well lighted, and, if possible, with south exposure. 

"The room should be provided with heavy, flat-topped 
tables, about thirty-two inches high. The length and 
breadth of these must often be adapted to the shape of 
the room, but, when possible, tables three feet wide and 
eight feet long will be found very convenient. These 
tables should have no iron in their construction, if pos- 
sible, and the top should project at least three inches. 
Any good carpenter can make these tables. 

"If there is a good water system in the building the labo- 
ratory should be provided with a sink. If not, a wooden 
tank a foot deep, two feet wide, and three feet long, lined 
with lead or galvanized iron, will be found convenient. 
If the laboratory can be supplied with gas, the fixtures 
should hang from the ceiling directly over the tables and 
about four feet above them. Connections can then be 
made with Bunsen burners by the use of rubber tubing. 
If no gas can be provided, gasolene torches handled with 
care are the best substitute. 






PHYSICS 175 

"Cases for storing apparatus should be about four- 
teen inches deep, with movable shelves and glass fronts. 
They should be self-locking, and all open with the same 
key. It is to be noted that hard-rubber apparatus should 
be stored in a dark place. A class in physics consumes 
at best more of the teacher's time than one in most other 
branches. Everything about the laboratory should be 
arranged to facilitate the getting out and putting away of 
apparatus. Then the teacher should be expected and 
required to see that all tools and apparatus be locked up 
when not in use. 

"A few tools for making and repairing apparatus are an 
essential part of a laboratory equipment. There should 
be at least a small carpenter's work-bench and the fol- 
lowing tools: Vise, fine-toothed saw, small plane, brace, 
drills, screw-drivers, pliers, files, small claw-hammer, 
tinner's snips, small soldering-iron, hack-saw. 

"Experience has taught us that the average teacher of 
physics is liable to err in requiring the class to study too 
many topics and do too many experiments. The result 
of such an error is that the pupils become confused and 
also acquire careless habits in the use of apparatus and 
the making of measurements. They are apt to get the 
habit of being satisfied with hurried and slovenly work. 
It would be far better for the teacher to select half the 
number of experiments, and to see to it that each mem- 
ber of the class performs each experiment individually, 
and preserves a description of his work and its results 
in neat, orderly, readable form. 

"The following list of topics was prepared by a com- 
mittee of physics teachers of the North Central Associa- 
tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools. It contains the 
subject-matter which all teachers agree is desirable for a 



176 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

first course in physics. A pupil who has learned this ma- 
terial well has done a good year's work in physics. It 
is, however, possible to increase the number of topics 
without leading to superficial work. Those with stars 
opposite them are the ones best adapted to furnish lab- 
oratory problems. (See the definition of the physics unit 
quoted earlier in the chapter.) 

"The following list of laboratory problems are sug- 
gested as suitable ones to accompany the topics in the 
syllabus. Each student should do at least thirty experi- 
ments of this type: 

i. How find the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped piece 
of card-board or sheet metal? How prove that the point found is 
the centre of gravity? 

Irregularly shaped card or sheet metal. 

Plumb line. 

2. Which requires the stronger foundation, a brick wall or a con- 
crete wall of the same dimensions? 

Brick, block of concrete. 
Spring balance, meter stick. 
Which weighs most, a wooden bridge containing 500 cubic feet 
of spruce or an iron bridge containing 100 cubic feet of iron ? 
Block of spruce, block of iron. 
Spring balance, meter stick. 

3. What is the tension on a tie rod that supports an electric arc 
lamp that weighs 70 pounds? 

Spring balance, wooden stick, string, weights. 

4. A colt can pull half as hard as a horse. How arrange a 
whiffletree so that the two can be hitched to a wagon and each get 
his share of the load? 

Two spring balances, meter stick, string. 

5. Do gas meters measure gas at the pressure of the atmosphere 
or at the pressure of the gas in the mains? Which method would 
give the consumer the most gas for his money? How much more? 

Water manometer to measure gas pressure, Boyle's law 
tube to measure change in volume with change in press- 
ure, two large iron pails to measure gas, school gas meter. 



PHYSICS 177 

6. Given the diameter of the gasometer of the local gas works, 
measure the gas pressure and compute the weight of the iron top of 
the gasometer. What difference in level in the water level inside 
and out of the gasometer? Construct model and verify conclusions. 
Compute volume of water displaced and get weight of gasometer 
top and confined gas. 

7. How many cubic feet of pine are required to float a 100-pound 
boy entirely out of water? 

Block of pine, meter stick, spring balance. 

8. Five cubic feet of lead are used in the keel of a boat. How 
much does the lead weigh out of water? How much does it weigh 
under water? Would it sink the boat as far when it is fastened to 
the keel under water as it would when placed in the boat ? 

Chunk of lead, spring balance, jar of water. 

9. Does it take more work to slide a cake of ice up an inclined 
plane than to lift it vertically to the top of the plane? If so, how 
much more ? What is the maximum efficiency of the inclined plane 
in the laboratory? 

Inclined plane, glass plate to cover its top, car, spring 
balance or set of weights. 

10. Is more work required to pull a safe up to the third floor 
with a set of pulleys than to carry it up by hand? What is the 
maximum efficiency of the pulleys in the laboratory? 

Pulleys, load to represent the safe, spring balance or set of 
weights. 

11. Repeat 10, using the wheel and axle. 

12. Does it require more work to lift a stone with a crowbar or 
to raise it directly by hand through the same height? 

Lever, spring balances or set of weights. 
Is the efficiency of the lever ever greater than 1? If so, 
why? 

13. How much ice is needed to cool a gallon of water at 30 C. 
to 2 C. ? 

Calorimeter, ice, thermometer. 

14. How much ice is melted in a refrigerator when an aluminium 
kettle at a temperature of 30 C. and which weighs 1 pound is placed 
in the refrigerator and cooled to 2 C. ? 

Aluminium chips, calorimeter, thermometer. 



178 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

15. Which gas burner is more efficient, a Bunsen burner or a gas- 
stove burner? 

Bunsen burner, gas-stove burner, kettle of water, ther- 
mometer. Time rise in temperature of given amount 
of water. Note gas consumption on meter, or use Thorp 
gauge. 

16. On a given burner, which kettle is most efficient? 

Several kettles, thermometer. Note time required to heat 
given amount of water a given number of degrees. 

17. In an open kettle of water that takes 15 minutes to come 
to a boil, how much water will boil away if the kettle boils for 5 
minutes? 

Try it and compute the heat of vaporization, or measure 
the latter and compute it, testing the conclusion. 

18. What is the temperature at which dew forms to-day? 

Dew point hygrometer. 

19. Which makes the best lining for a tireless cooker, an air 
space, felt, excelsior, mineral wool, etc. ? Are any of them as good 
as a " thermos " bottle? 

Thermometer and materials to make different cookers. 

20. How is a siren whistle constructed and why does it produce 
the peculiar effect? 

21. How long are the waves of sound from your own voice? 

Tune voice to organ pipe or other air column. 

22. Can you make a photograph without a lens? 

Pinhole camera. 

23. Why is the image in a plane mirror reversed? 

Make diagram by sighting images of pins. 

24. What makes the "cow's hoof" in the bottom of a glass of 
water when it is placed below and to one side of a candle? 

25. How do luxifer prisms or holophane shades send light into 
dark corners and help light up dark rooms? Why is there no color 
in the light transmitted by them? 

Trace light through prism. 

26. Do different sized cameras when pointed from a given place 
at the same object all give images of the same size? Is there any 
relation between the size of the image and the distance from the 
centre of the lens to the ground glass? 

Several lenses of different focal lengths, meter stick. 



PHYSICS 179 

27. At a given distance from a compass needle, in what position 
does a magnet produce the greatest deflection? 

Trace lines of force about the magnet with the compass 
needle. 

28. Which form of voltaic-cell is best for door bells? Which 
for telegraph lines? Which for toy motors? Test them and find 
out why. 

29. Why is it better to connect house electric lamps in parallel? 

Try them both in series and in parallel. Measure with 
voltmeter and ammeter. 

30. Which radiates more heat per watt-hour, a carbon lamp or 
a tungsten lamp? 

Calorimeter, voltmeter, ammeter. 

31. Which furnishes the most light per watt-hour, a carbon lamp 
or a tungsten lamp? 

Voltmeter, ammeter, photometer. 

32. What makes the motor go? 

St. Louis motor. 

33. What is the efficiency of a small motor ? 

Voltmeter, ammeter, motor, brake. 

34. What is the efficiency of the dynamo in the school or town? 

35. What is the efficiency of a small water motor? 

36. Which kind of coal for sale in your town gives the greatest 
number of heat units per pound? Which gives the greatest number 
of heat units per dollar? 

37. Is the heat equivalent of the city gas up to standard? 

38. What is the most efficient steam engine in town? (Express 
result in pounds coal per H. P. H.) 

39. Does the ventilating plant in your school supply the requi- 
site amount of fresh air (3,000 cubic feet per person per hour) ? 

40. How much coal is burned per day at your school? How 
much of the heat gets used up in heating the air? How much of 
it is lost up the chimney? Could the heating plant be improved? 
How?" 

In what has just been said about the adaptation of the 
physics course, as generally defined, to the real needs of 
the high school pupil in after life, the constant effort 
has been to keep in mind the criticisms, which have been 



180 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

made so freely during recent years, against the dictation 
of colleges and universities in this definition. The state- 
ments of the chapter have been made with a feeling of 
greater certainty in view of the fact that one of the latest 
definitions was drawn up by a committee of successful 
secondary school teachers, and in view of the further 
fact that their definition did not depart essentially from 
the previous ones. The real test of the value of a physics 
course, with whatever "definition" it may be in accord, 
lies in the ability of the pupil to apply physical principles 
in the solution of his every-day problems; it should be 
the constant aim of the instructor to train this power of 
application. The one great danger is that the instructor 
may yield to the temptation, laid constantly before him 
by some text-books, to include too much material in the 
year's work. Indeed most text-books of physics would 
benefit by judicious pruning. Thoroughness, above all 
things, is of value in physics teaching. 

Future of Physics in the Schools. — There are many 
teachers of science in America who believe that before 
many years pass the subject of physics will be accorded 
an important position in the education of our children 
and in their life in after-school days — recognized to such 
an extent, indeed, as to have provided for it a more ex- 
tended treatment in our high schools than now is allowed 
it. When this change comes, a short course, mainly de- 
scriptive in character, should be put into one of the early 
years. Such would serve very satisfactorily as a fore- 
runner of the chemistry of the curriculum, as well as of 
the main physics course. The action of the National 
Education Association recommends that, where both 
chemistry and physics are taught, physics shall be given 
in the third year and chemistry in the fourth. The action 



PHYSICS 181 

represents an essential agreement with a minority report 
of its "Committee of Ten," appointed to consider the 
correlation of the various subjects of the curriculum. 
The committee report itself favored the reversed order. 
The reason expressed for the minority report was "that 
chemical theory so completely depends upon an intelli- 
gent conception of its relations to physical laws that pre- 
vious training in the latter would seem indispensable." 
This reason may be sufficient for the action taken, and 
undoubtedly the recommendation will be followed wher- 
ever a situation arises calling for decision on the point 
involved; but when such conditions, as are expressed 
here, do not exist, the place for physics is undoubtedly 
in the fourth year. Physics needs this year (from the 
third to the fourth) of mental development, and it needs 
the aid of the third year of mathematics; it needs these 
more than does any other study in the curriculum. A 
good solution of the difficulty would be provided by this 
elementary first course in physical science. 

The Training of Teachers. — From the discussion of this 
chapter the inference is that considerable stress is to be 
placed upon the training of the teacher as well as upon 
his native ability and adaptation to the science. I be- 
lieve that the solution of many of the difficulties which 
beset the teaching of physics in our schools lies here. 
Moreover, a great part of the responsibility for whatever 
of unsatisfactory condition exists is due to the unsatis- 
factory method by which the physics teachers are trained 
in our colleges and universities. A part of the responsi- 
bility again lies at the doors of the officials of the school, 
who seem willing in many localities that physics should 
be taught by a teacher with no other training in the 
science than one general course in addition to the ele- 



182 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

mentary physics itself. When these officials shall re- 
quire as high standards of preparation of their science 
teachers as they now do of their language teachers, phys- 
ics will make a long step forward in its service to the great 
mass of our citizens. 

From a slightly different point of view, attention was 
called to the importance of a knowledge of the historical 
development of the science, both for the instructor and 
for the pupil. No other feature of science training is so 
efficient in bringing the whole subject into view in proper 
perspective. 

The instructor, further, besides being interested in the 
past development of physics, should be in touch with its 
present and future development; for this also means 
a more efficient guidance of the pupil's interests. The 
growth of the science may be followed best by keeping 
in touch with the experimenters of the period; for by 
such acquaintance the general trend of growth may be 
seen. An abstracting journal, such as the admirable 
Science Abstracts in English, is almost necessary for 
this purpose. I can do nothing better here than to call 
the reader's attention to an address by Nichols, 1 before 
the Physics Club of New York, on "Research Work for 
Physics Teachers," a paper which, even in short abstract, 
is admirably suggestive for teachers. 

1 Nichols, E. L., Science, 13, 202; 1901 (abstract). 



CHAPTER VIII 

CHEMISTRY 
J. E. Mills, Ph.D. 

FORMERLY ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF 
NORTH CAROLINA; CONSULTING CHEMIST, COLUMBIA, S. C. 

Should Chemistry be Taught in the High Schools? — 

The knowledge which fits a child best for life is that 
which enables him best to understand and to appreciate his 
surroundings. The training which fits a child best for life 
is that which trains him best to see truly, to think clearly, 
and to apply his knowledge. 

What is chemistry? In what way does chemistry 
touch the life of the average man ? Will a knowledge of 
chemistry prove of benefit to the ordinary laborer, or 
farmer, or mechanic, or business man? Such questions 
have been often asked, and my almost invariable reply 
to the questioner is, "Name anything about you with 
which chemistry has nothing to do?" It makes little 
difference as to the reply — cloth, paper, glass, wood, 
brick, the body itself, the food that we eat, and the earth 
upon which we walk — chemistry teaches of the consti- 
tution of these bodies, of the way in which they are made. 
For the things by which we are surrounded, and we our- 
selves, are made up in a wonderful way from a very few 
simpler bodies. Just as brick and stone and wood and 
mortar can be used to make a city full of houses each 
different from the other, so a few simpler bodies are so 

183 



184 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

united and put together as to make all of the wonderful 
world with which we are in every-day contact. Surely, 
it is interesting to know something of the things of which 
this wonderful world is made, and something of the way 
in which they are put together, and something of the 
changes which they undergo. For fire does not destroy 
wood, or coal, or oil — it merely changes them. The food 
we eat becomes a part of our body. Similarly, trees and 
plants grow because they absorb the necessary food from 
the soil and from the air. Some knowledge of these won- 
ders makes life broader and more full of meaning and of 
pleasure. Is it right that students should be allowed to 
pass out of the high school and enter upon their life's 
work in total ignorance of the structure and changes of 
the entire world about them ? 

Chemistry in the high schools should be made a won- 
derfully interesting study and a study that would con- 
tribute a lasting interest to life; but this is only one part 
of the story. Each man's present life, as he lives it under 
the conditions of our modern civilization, has been made 
possible only by the knowledge of chemistry which the 
world has come to possess. A knowledge of chemistry 
has made possible the production of iron from its ores, 
and every step of civilization has been dependent upon 
that knowledge. But that industry is only one of a hun- 
dred industries dependent upon a knowledge of chemistry 
for their existence or for their present perfection. The 
production of copper and silver and lead and tin and zinc 
from their ores, and the winning of gold, are dependent 
upon chemical processes. The chemist explains how 
best to produce brick, and cement, and mortar, and con- 
crete, for the purpose in view. He supervises the manu- 
facture of glass, of paints, and of dyestuffs. He is a 



CHEMISTRY 185 

necessary adjunct to the sugar refinery and of the soap 
factory. Not alone for the material of the printing-press, 
but for the paper and the ink as well, a debt is owing to 
the chemist. He aids the physician with his drugs and 
the farmer with his fertilizers. To his care is largely en- 
trusted the carrying out of the pure-food law and the in- 
spection of drinking water. The above are only exam- 
ples. Literally in a hundred ways the knowledge of the 
chemist touches the home life of nearly every man, wom- 
an, and child in the United States. All of the chemical 
processes mentioned, and the numerous others, can be 
taught in no high school. But a foundation for further 
reading can and should be laid, and some of the simpler, 
and locally more important, processes should be taught. 

There is yet another side to the story — the knowledge 
of chemistry may prove directly useful in the home or in 
the daily life. A little knowledge of chemistry enables 
one to understand far better than is otherwise possible 
the valuable information given in the many useful bulle- 
tins, reports, and magazine and newspaper articles on 
such subjects as health, hygiene, sanitation, pure and im- 
pure foods, pure and impure paints, patent medicines, 
fertilizers, scientific farming, insecticides, disinfectants, 
wood preservatives, etc. A little knowledge of these 
matters is often the means of saving many dollars. 
Sometimes, too, it is useful to know how to remove a 
stain, or to remember that the antidote for carbolic acid 
is alcohol. 

Specific Mental Disciplines Involved. — So far only those 
points have been considered which belong more partic- 
ularly to a course in chemistry. The general educative 
value of the course is not greatly different from that of the 
other science courses. Chemistry is not a " memory " sub- 



186 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ject, but it does require that the facts learned to-day shall 
be used, not forgotten, to-morrow. It necessitates at 
almost every step reasoning from things seen to things 
unseen, and from particular facts to general laws. It cul- 
tivates the scientific use of the imagination. It gives the 
student opportunity to apply his knowledge of mathe- 
matics, English, and drawing. It gives him skill in the 
use of apparatus and fits him for further similar work 
later. It develops accuracy, self-dependence, and intel- 
lectual honesty. It furnishes him an insight into — nay, 
more, it even introduces him personally to the methods 
that have been and that are used in the study of nature 
and natural laws. It encourages his innate desire to ask 
questions and teaches that lesson which it took the human 
race many centuries to learn — that the questions must be 
asked, not of men, nor of books, but of the things them- 
selves. Surely, there comes to every teacher the oppor- 
tunity, as his pupil stands face to face with some won- 
derful law of nature, to inspire the feeling — "The place 
whereon thou standest is holy ground." These points 
are left without further emphasis in this article solely 
because they concern science generally and not chemistry 
more particularly. Let no reader underestimate their 
importance. 

We have argued that chemistry has a place in the high- 
school curriculum because, first, it teaches of the consti- 
tution and changes of the world about us, and the infor- 
mation adds a new interest to, and a new appreciation of, 
life. Because, second, the advance in chemical knowl- 
edge is felt in a hundred ways in every home life to-day. 
Because, third, chemistry gives much specifically useful 
information. Because, fourth, chemistry, if properly 
taught, is one of the best imaginable subjects to train the 



CHEMISTRY 



187 



pupil to see for himself, to think for himself, and to do 
for himself. 

The Past and Present Status of Chemistry in the High 
Schools. — It should be clearly recognized that the study 
of chemistry in the high schools is not to-day in a satis- 
factory condition. Taking, first, a glance at the country 
as a whole it will be noted from the table below that 
chemistry has lost ground during the last twenty years. 
This loss (shared also by physics) is the more significant 



PER CENT OF STUDENTS STUDYING CHEMISTRY 





1889-90 


1894-95 


1899-1900 


1904-05 


1909-10* 


Private high schools 
Public high schools. 
Total 


8-59 

10.10 

9.62 


9-79 
9-15 
9-3 1 


9-34 

7.72 
8.00 


8.80 
6.76 

7.04 


9.38 
6.89 

7-13 



* 9.378 public and private high schools reporting 817,653 students. These data are 
from information furnished by the Commissioner of Education. 

in that it has occurred during a period of wonderful 
advance in the applications of science and of greatly in- 
creased expenditure for high school equipment. 

In considering the present status of chemistry in the 
high schools, it should be remembered that chemistry is 
usually taught in the fourth year of the high school course 
and that probably slightly over half of the fourth year 
students do study chemistry. Moreover, something of 
the past history of chemistry as a science should be borne 
in mind. As a science, chemistry commenced its exist- 
ence only a little over a hundred years ago. For years 
there were no laboratories for student instruction. The 
first was opened by Liebig at Giessen in 1825. After 
that date laboratory instruction in universities became 



188 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

increasingly common, but chemistry had to wait for years 
for general admission into the school curriculum. Once 
admitted, neither in prestige nor in the methods used for 
instruction could it rank with the long established classics 
and mathematics. In 1888 Harvard College, for the first 
time, included chemistry among the subjects that might 
be offered for admission. Since that time, slowly it is 
true as was to be expected, chemistry has been gradually 
accorded a place among the subjects admitting to en- 
trance credit into the various colleges and universities. 
Its full recognition has been hastened in many places by 
the unit system introduced by the Carnegie Foundation. 
Difficulties in the Way of Successful Teaching of Chem- 
istry. — First might be placed the past history of the sub- 
ject. Unsuccessful methods of teaching will linger after 
they have been proved failures. The four-year high 
school is not the place for a course in qualitative analysis. 
Nor is the high school the place for studying the details 
of the numerous compounds, important though they may 
be, with which chemistry as a science has to deal. Nor 
is it advisable that the high school course should be but 
a briefer model of some college course designed for the 
professional chemist or the technically trained scientist. 
The history of one high school 1 can be taken as illustra- 
tive of the change in science teaching that should take 
place in many. After a series of years in which the science 
course had proved a failure this school remodelled the 
course, aiming chiefly (1) to give the pupil a broad gen- 
eral view of the whole field of science, at the same time 
arousing his interest and getting him awake to the possi- 
bilities of the work; (2) to explain to the pupil his every- 
day environment, showing him that the science of the 

1 Springfield, Mass. See Teachers' College Record, vol. XI, 63, 1910. 



CHEMISTRY 189 

school -room and the science of the outside world are 
one and the same thing. The result of this change was 
the immediate success of the science department. 

The second difficulty lies in the nature of the subject 
itself. Some knowledge of mathematics and physics is 
desirable. Chemistry makes use of symbols and equa- 
tions and deals with numerous facts which at first appear 
almost totally disconnected. Moreover, atoms and mole- 
cules and their relations cannot be seen with the naked 
eye or with the microscope. The changes with which 
chemistry is concerned must be inferred from the results 
of experiments upon millions of particles taken together. 
The query " I've washed the ketchins and caught the drip- 
pins and what must I do next?" illustrates the attitude 
of many students when they first deal with a precipitate 
and filtrate. How can the student infer the wonderful 
changes in composition and structure of which the pre- 
cipitation and separation are but signs? Time, atten- 
tion, and patience are required to give the student the 
proper "attitude" toward his work. 

The third difficulty lies in the fact that some sort of 
laboratory teaching (not necessarily perhaps in a labo- 
ratory) is essential. The installation of the laboratory is 
a matter of difficulty, requiring much technical knowledge 
and considerable expense. The laboratory teaching con- 
sumes the time of the teacher, and some students do not 
adjust themselves readily to the laboratory surroundings 
and work. 

Other difficulties will be met by the teacher of chem- 
istry. Their detailed discussion and specific advice are 
avoided because the best solution of the difficulties de- 
pends largely upon the individual teacher. No agreement 
as to the value of specific suggestions would be found be- 



190 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

cause each teacher can best meet his own difficulties in 
his own way. Thus, in the care of apparatus, one teacher 
will require individual desk equipment and carefully 
checked lists for each student. Another will instil into 
his class such a "laboratory spirit" that intentional dis- 
turbance of another's apparatus is practically unknown. 
Neither teacher would succeed as well using the system 
of the other. Every teacher should "take stock" once in 
a while of his class, the results he is obtaining, and of his 
methods, and meet his difficulties after a broad consid- 
eration of ways and means. 

Suggestions as to the Teaching of Chemistry. — If the 
objects for which chemistry is taught are kept clearly in 
view, serious errors in the method of teaching will be 
largely avoided. The following hints may prove of help 
to some: 

i. Interest the pupil in his surroundings. Get him to 
asking questions about the composition of water, air, 
wood, brick, soil, rocks, sugar, salt, food — in short, any- 
thing with which he comes in contact — and questions 
about the changes which these bodies do and can under- 
go- 

2. Interest the pupil in any local chemical industry. 
If in the country, pay particular attention to soils and 
fertilizers, the chemistry of dairying and of breadmaking, 
etc. Have reference books at hand and encourage the 
pupil to read about the manufacture of any article in 
which he has become interested. He will remember 
possibly more than you think, but the habit of "looking 
things up," if once acquired, will be of more benefit than 
the immediate knowledge gained. 

3. Keep your eyes always open to give the student 
some specifically useful knowledge about soils and fer- 






CHEMISTRY 191 

tilizers, paints, dairying, insecticides, disinfectants, pre- 
servatives, patent medicines, removing stains, antidotes 
for poisons, etc. Some seed is sure to fall on good ground 
where it will bring forth a hundred-fold. Make the in- 
formation practical. Devote a day to headache prepara- 
tions, expose the patent medicine frauds that advertise 
in the local papers, study the community water supply 
and its purity. If some college professor or examination 
board thinks that the students' time could be better spent 
in studying the compounds of magnesium and their 
properties, think the matter over and see if you can agree 
with them. Probably few teachers could, and perhaps 
none should, treat of all of the subjects mentioned. It 
is not intended that the course should primarily be in- 
dustrial or technical. 

4. Try to give the pupil an outline of chemical science 
— its primary laws and its theories. While his interest 
is being aroused and certain useful facts are being taught 
in a more or less hop, skip, and jump fashion, do not for- 
get that chemistry is a science, and, therefore, lay as sure 
a foundation for further work as your time and skill will 
allow. The pupil's interest is at first the great thing to 
be gained, but guide his interest. Don't follow his every 
impulse, but in addition to any side questions that come 
up, make some definite progress in a given direction with 
each lesson. The amount of the science of chemistry 
that can be taught in an elementary home fashion is 
limited almost solely by the knowledge and skill of the 
teacher. 

5. Remember always that it is not what the student 
knows, but what he is able to do in after life that deter- 
mines his success. Therefore, in all of your teaching 
make the pupil think for himself and do for himself 



192 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Cultivate his imagination; it is a valuable aid to right 
thinking. Every question asked and answered by the 
pupil himself is worth ten asked by you and answered by 
the pupil with your aid. But do not let him waste too 
much time foolishly. Remember that perhaps most of 
his questions neither you nor any one else can completely 
answer. 

Teach him where and how to get more knowledge, be- 
cause knowledge increases the power to do things. 

6. Do not make the course a mere memory exercise. 
Where this is done the fact that the student on examina- 
tion describes hydrogen for chlorine is not surprising. 
Only good luck could keep him from making some such 
mistake. But worse than the mistake — his knowledge 
when gained is so far removed from his environment that 
it is perfectly useless to him. Why not call hydrogen 
chlorine ? 

7. Review constantly. "We do not learn things once 
for all." 

8. Illustrate the course with experiments where prac- 
ticable. 

9. Do not design the course primarily to satisfy a col- 
lege entrance requirement. Do not be over anxious to 
obtain college credit for the course. For college entrance 
the important question in the past has been "What do 
you know?" In life the important question is "What 
can you do?" Some day the colleges and universities 
will recognize that the training which best fits a man for 
life should be acceptable as an entrance requirement, and 
adjustment of credits will follow. 

Suggestions as to the Laboratory Equipment. — There is 
marked difference of opinion here. I would like to con- 
trast two quotations. "If the facilities of the school 



CHEMISTRY 193 

preclude the possibility of providing room and apparatus 
for laboratory work, the natural science in the programme 
should either be reduced to a minimum or temporarily 
eliminated. As facilities for the laboratory work become 
available it is well to equip adequately for work in one 
science, omitting all others for a time if necessary. . . . 
Generally speaking, chemistry should not be introduced 
into the programme until a suitable room can be devoted 
entirely to the laboratory." x This attitude is responsi- 
ble for the lack of chemistry courses in numerous high 
schools. The other quotation is taken from the descrip- 
tion given by the chemist, Wohler, of his visit to the lab- 
oratory of Berzelius, in which so many famous discoveries 
had been made. " No water, no gas, no hoods, no oven, 
were to be seen; a couple of plain tables, a blow-pipe, 
a few shelves with bottles, a little simple apparatus, and 
a large water barrel whereat Anna, the ancient cook of 
the establishment, washed the laboratory dishes, com- 
pleted the furnishings of this room, famous throughout 
Europe for the work which had been done in it. In the 
kitchen which adjoined, and where Anna cooked, was a 
small furnace and a sand bath for heating purposes." 

The laboratory equipment can be made as expensive 
as desired, and in many cases considerable expense is 
justifiable; but an expensive equipment is not an abso- 
lute necessity. If only a few dollars are available a 
start can be made. A poor equipment does require 
more time and skill on the part of the teacher. The 
proper adjustment of the quality and quantity of chemi- 
cals and apparatus, and the numerous details of labora- 
tory equipment, to the needs and finances of a particu- 
lar school, are matters requiring so much technical 

1 Brown, " The American High School," pp. 147, 183. 



194 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

knowledge that in every State some authority should be 
provided from whom efficient aid and direction can be 
secured by any school desiring assistance. 

Suggestions as to the Laboratory Work. — i. The lab- 
oratory course should be designed to increase the pupil's 
interest in his work, to increase his power to see, think, 
and do for himself, and to make him acquainted with 
the chemicals, methods of manipulation, reactions, and 
laws, at first hand. 

| 2. Have the pupil keep a laboratory note-book, and 
j insist on the use of reasonably good English, on neatness, 
'and on clearness, and that all entries shall be made when 
the experiment is performed. Full directions, some ex- 
planations and questions, are useful in the laboratory 
manual, but strictly guiding subheads are to be avoided. 
A loose-leaf system is an advantage. 

3. The attention of the teacher must be given repeatedly 
to each individual student while in the laboratory. 

4. Some problems should accompany the course in 
chemistry. These problems should always be practical 
and should be made more of a laboratory than a class- 
room exercise. 

5. Do not have much exact measurement. A student 
may measure a thing exactly and know nothing about it. 
In fact his mind is easily diverted from the real problem 
to the mechanical details of the measurement. Some 
science courses have been aptly called " starvation courses 
in measurements." 

6. Sacrifice some of the experiments "in the book" 
for some more nearly home-made. The added interest 
will repay the trouble. 

7. Make the student think, but do not expect him to 
rediscover chemical laws, or to prove them. A little 



CHEMISTRY 195 

consideration of any law will probably show you that 
you could not, if turned loose in the best chemical labora- 
tory in the country, prove the law in six months. Let 
the experiments illustrate the laws; they will help the 
student to remember and to understand them. 

8. Sometimes the student gets more results than he 
can take care of. He may not select the one that you 
had in mind. Do not expect him always to draw your 
conclusion, without your assistance, from an experiment 
assigned by you. 

Time and Position to be Allotted to the Course in 
Chemistry. — As to the time to be devoted to a study of 
chemistry, a hard and fast rule is certainly neither 
possible nor desirable. No adequate discussion of this 
subject could omit a consideration of all of the science 
courses at the same time. We are then confronted with 
a fact particularly emphasized by G. H. Mead. 1 "The 
sciences in the high schools are hopelessly isolated. 
They exist in water-tight compartments, with none of 
the interrelationships which are implied in their own sub- 
ject-matter, and which are essential to their comprehen- 
sion, especially for the student of this period." Science 
teaching should begin early in the elementary school and 
proceed by carefully graded steps throughout the last 
year of the high school. At the present time the arrange- 
ment of text-books and subjects, and the adjustment of 
teachers, makes this a matter of great difficulty. But 
only in this way could the very large number of students 
who fail to complete the high school course gain some 
elementary knowledge of the various sciences — that is 
to say, gain some scientific knowledge of the world about 
them, in which they are to live. 

1 School Review, vol. XIV, 240, 1906. 



196 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Under this ideal arrangement, to be realized when 
possible, much elementary chemistry has found its way 
into the various science courses devoted mainly to other 
subjects. The more formal and scientific development 
of the subject can then well be postponed to the last 
year of the high school, or perhaps the course can be 
taken as an elective study at an earlier period. The 
laboratory work is best given in double periods. Two 
double periods per week for the laboratory work, and 
three single periods for recitation and lecture extend- 
ing throughout the year (one hundred and sixty-two 
hours in all) are suggested as a fair arrangement and 
one in accord with the best usage at present. Perhaps 
in the best equipped schools the course could be ex- 
tended, and part of the course made optional, since "the 
value of any study depends largely upon the reaction of 
the student." 

The Equipment of the Teacher. — In selecting a teacher 
even for so technical a subject as chemistry the person- 
ality of the teacher counts for more than his knowledge. 
Granting suitable personality in the teacher, the more 
technical knowledge, skill, and experience he has the 
better, ad infinitum, and equally as important is the 
ability to teach. Highly specialized training in a par- 
ticular subject, such as chemistry, of itself probably 
neither gives nor destroys the ability to teach. There is 
little more to be said. In any given case the selection 
of a teacher narrows itself down to a consideration of 
the special fitness of particular individuals. Rigid econ- 
omy in the salaries offered results inevitably in the long 
run in a sacrifice of efficiency. 

Colleges, universities, and normal schools can well 
give more attention to equipping the future teachers of 



CHEMISTRY 197 

chemistry to meet the difficulties incident to the installa- 
tion of efficient laboratory instruction. 

Text-Books and Reference Books. — A text-book should 
be chosen with reference both to the teacher and to the 
pupil. The text-books differ not only as regards style, 
clearness, and amount of subject-matter introduced, but, 
also, they vary greatly in the emphasis placed on the 
descriptive side of chemistry (the facts) as opposed to 
the generalizations (the theories and laws) underlying the 
facts. Also they vary in the emphasis placed on the 
scientific as opposed to the practical side of chemistry. 
Let teachers note these differences and select a book 
suitable for their purpose. If the text-book adopted 
does not sufficiently emphasize the practical side of chem- 
istry, the teacher should not hesitate to draw material for 
an occasional lesson from the reference books at hand. 



CHAPTER IX 
BIOLOGY 

Arthur S. Pearse, Ph.D. 

FORMERLY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, ST. LOUIS UNIVERSITY 

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE 

"The student of nature can do no more than strive toward 
the truth. When he does not find the whole truth there is but 
one gospel for his salvation — still to strive toward the truth. . . . 
And so, if you ask whether I look to a day when we shall know 
the whole truth in regard to organic mechanism and organic 
evolution, I answer: No! But let us go forward." — Wilson. 

"A good teacher is one who puts the least possible obstruction 
in the way of a student." — Coulter. 

Introductory — Importance of Biology. — The study of 
biology is of particular importance in education since our 
entire store of knowledge has its basis in the activities of 
living substance. All the conditions which human beings 
most desire to attain represent the fulfilment of biological 
laws. The youth hungers for maturity — he is completing 
his life cycle; the man spends long days and sleepless 
nights striving to attain success — this is his endeavor to 
survive in the struggle for existence; the mother longs for 
a child and, once she has one, will sacrifice all else to it 
— thus is the race preserved. Love, hate, industry, knowl- 
edge, power, success are all conditioned by nutrition, 
growth, excretion, oxidation, and other processes which 
are common not only to all animals but to plants as 
well. Small wonder, then, that educators have lately 

198 



BIOLOGY 199 

found a place for biology in the high school curriculum 
and that it has steadily gained ground. 

For those who still question the value of biology, it is 
easy to find answers. From the point of view of mental 
training, the proper study of living things offers an ex- 
cellent field for (i) gathering first-hand knowledge, (2) 
gaining clear ideas, (3) making concrete analyses, (4) 
using the mind for abstraction and discrimination, (5) 
seeing resemblances, (6) forming general concepts, and 
(7) giving logical definitions. Furthermore, "biology 
has a special function in training, in that it has for its 
subject-matter living organisms whose varying and un- 
certain behavior train the judgment of youth better to 
understand the behavior of men. It certainly exercises 
the judgment in a different way than do the exact sciences 
of physics and chemistry." The aesthetic sense is cul- 
tivated so that a finer appreciation of the grandeur and 
beauty of the living universe is gained without the sen- 
timentality and superstition which have often been char- 
acteristic of lovers of nature. 

For the practical mind a host of instances might be 
cited wherein biology is of inestimable value to man. 
The study of the biology of such afflictions as malaria, 
yellow-fever, and the hook-worm disease has revolution- 
ized our ideas, and we are amazed when we look back 
on the methods formerly used in the treatment of such 
diseases. According to authoritative estimates, more than 
four hundred million dollars are lost annually in the 
United States through the ravages of insects, and it seems 
fitting that our high school students should have some 
general notions concerning them. Fifteen per cent of 
the hogs in certain localities are infected with the dread 
trichina. Should we not learn how this comes about? 



200 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

As long ago as 1897, fifteen hundred persons were em- 
ployed in making pearl buttons from clam-shells in the 
State of Iowa. Should not young men in such a locality 
have a chance to learn something about clams? And 
so on ad infinitum. 

But biology has still other spheres of influence. The 
social life of any boy or girl who studies it will take on 
a newer and broader aspect, by gaining a proper per- 
spective of man's place in nature. In some respects man 
excels all other organisms, in others he is inferior to some 
of the so-called lower animals; at all events, he is only 
an animal and is subject to the same biological laws as 
others. And finally, no person who has once grasped the 
fundamental principles of biology can fail to see that his 
whole mental and moral nature depends upon the proper 
cultivation of his body (particularly his brain cells) ; con- 
sequently, biological knowledge ought to be a daily incen- 
tive to a clean, moderate, and worthy manhood. 

Historical. — Although the scientific study of biology 
dates from the time of Aristotle, it was not given a place 
in the school curriculum before Pestalozzi. In the 
United States biology made its way into the secondary 
schools during the nineteenth century. For the first 
quarter of the century no zoology was taught. Botany, 
being deemed more elegant and precise, was offered in 
a few "female seminaries." From 1825 until about 1875 
zoology and botany were taught from text-books with 
the chief emphasis on the systematic side — the central 
idea being to inspire students with admiration for the 
works of the Creator. About 1875 comparative anat- 
omy began to be introduced into zoology classes, and 
students were first required to verify descriptions by 
reference to dissections and demonstrations, and later to 



BIOLOGY 201 

make dissections for themselves; on the botanical side, 
work outside the text-book was largely confined to the 
preparation of herbaria. 

Rapid advances in high school biology have come 
within the past twenty-five years. Since 1885 effective 
laboratory work has been more generally present in the 
better schools. Before this time biology was "not yet 
recognized as one of the essential factors of education"; 
the common facts relating to the subject were not widely 
known, and there were neither competent teachers nor 
acceptable text-books. Furthermore, the subject was 
not generally supposed to furnish a broad scope for men- 
tal discipline. 

In 1892 the "Committee of Ten" recommended that a 
minimum of biological instruction should be one year, 
preferably devoted to either botany or zoology, with 
daily recitations. By 1895 biology had come to be recog- 
nized as valuable and important. At this time botany 
was still preferred to zoology for three reasons: (1) It 
was supposed to be better fitted for the child's tastes and 
uses, (2) more high school teachers were prepared in 
botany, and (3) it was demanded as a college entrance 
requirement. 

During the past ten years there has been a strong 
reaction against the old stereotyped conception which 
made of botany and zoology simply a mental exercise 
in classification and morphology. In 1903 Miss Brown 
said: "The laboratory method itself, which has lived 
now upwards of fifteen years, has not come through un- 
changed. From verification it has passed to investigation. 
It has become more flexible and more readily adapts 
itself to varying conditions. The day of laboratory 
guides is passing, but in its place is coming dynamic 



202 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

work, entailing greater attention to physiology and func- 
tion." Thus our methods of presentation have passed 
from narrative to classification, from classification to 
morphology, and we are now "entering upon a new 
phase which may be called investigation." * 

Correlated with the change in methods of teaching 
have been changes in the various accessories to such in- 
struction. During the past twenty-five years such com- 
plicated and expensive pieces of apparatus as the com- 
pound microscope, the camera, the clinostat, and the 
projection lantern have come into general use. We 
have advanced from the detailed one-sided descriptive 
text-books of the older writers, to comprehensive modern 
works, like those of Bergen and Davis, Coulter, Jordan, 
Kellogg and Heath, Linville and Kelly, and Hunter, 
which can be read and understood by high school students, 
but which nevertheless give some adequate idea of the 
present status of botanical and zoological thought. 

Hunter gives a convincing statement of the growing 
recognition of the educational value of biology in this 
country. He has gathered statistics from 276 representa- 
tive high schools distributed through 34 States. Of the 
1,371 science courses given, 430 were biological (623 if 
physiology courses were included). Hunter says: "430 
courses in biologic science are given as against 166 
courses in physiography, 253 courses in chemistry, and 
268 courses in physics." 2 

Ideas concerning the educational value of biological 
studies have been modified during the past few years. 
Biology first gained its place in the high school curricu- 
lum on account of the facts it presented. The dissection 

1 School Science and Mathematics, vol. II, pp. 201-209, 256-264. 

2 School Science and Mathematics, vol. X, pp. 1-10, 103-110. 



BIOLOGY 203 

and classification of types was for a time made an end in 
itself, but it soon came to be recognized that biology was 
a valuable means for training in observation. But even 
at this stage, the subject was often mere drudgery in the 
hands of mediocre teachers, for the aim was to "cover" 
a certain number of "forms" with due regard to accuracy 
in observation. The best teachers soon saw opportuni- 
ties for improvement. The chief fault with the method 
was that the questions for which the laboratory guides 
required solutions could be answered by mere observa- 
tion, and the student was not encouraged to think. Thus, 
the training, though good, was not in thinking, but in 
more or less mechanical processes, such as the making of 
diagrammatic drawings, and memorizing classifications 
and the structural details pertaining to certain types. 
One of the leading high school teachers of the Eastern 
United States describes the conditions in the following 
words: "Before the crisis came, however, we developed 
the belief that we could get more than mere observation 
from the pupil. We could get him to think and to form 
judgments. . . . We know that the method of experi- 
mentation, the so-called scientific method, is the process 
by which the great truths of science have been worked 
out. Some teachers are beginning to use the methods in 
work in biology in the schools, not for the purpose of 
developing specialists in research, but for the purpose of 
showing the pupils how problems may arise, how to 
formulate problems for themselves, how the factors of a 
problem are analyzed, how the conditions of experiment 
must be controlled, what results are, and that conclusions 
must be based on results." ' 

1 Linville, H. R., "The Practical Use of Biology," School Science and 
Mathematics, vol. IX, pp. 121-130. 



204 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

The idea that biology may offer all that it has included 
heretofore, and at the same time give students mental 
training by presenting problems for solution, has been 
stimulating for both teachers and pupils, and gives the 
greatest promise for future advancement. 

Present Status of High School Biology. — The correla- 
tion between the different branches of science is gradually 
becoming closer, and it is to be hoped that the time is not 
far distant when a plan may be adopted for the sciences 
which will be as well organized as those now followed 
by high school teachers of language or mathematics. 
" Schools offering biologic science early in the course with 
physics and chemistry later, after considerable mathe- 
matics, report almost uniformly satisfactory conditions. 
There is, however, considerable diversity of opinion as 
to the place of physiography. We may . . . divide the 
schools into two groups, one giving physiography in the 
first year followed by biology in the second year, and those 
giving biologic science in the first year followed by physi- 
ography." 1 Except in some Eastern States, biology is 
usually given in the second year, and there are many 
reasons why this seems to be the best plan, though there 
are, of course, some arguments against it. 

Although the sequence in high school science is be- 
coming better co-ordinated, the same cannot be said 
of the particular field of biology. Miss Dawson justly 
criticises the present system and gives a very pointed 
illustration. She visited a college, a normal school, and 
a high school on the same day, and found all the classes 
studying the same animal in much the same way. 2 Some 

1 Hunter, G. W., School Science and Mathematics, vol. X, pp. i-io, 
103-110. 

2 Dawson, J., School Science and Mathematics, vol. IX, pp. 653-657. 



BIOLOGY 205 

of the work now given in high schools has been copied 
from universities, and there is much duplication. How- 
ever, there is a sentiment for courses especially adapted 
to the needs of high school students without reference to 
anything else; in fact, many high schools are giving such 
courses at the present time. Nevertheless, the great ques- 
tion to-day is not the value or fitness of biological study, 
but what to teach. 

Whitney 1 has pointed out that the time allowed in 
our limited curriculums is not adequate for the proper 
presentation of scientific subjects, and there is little cor- 
relation between them. The time must come when edu- 
cators cannot avoid giving a more important place to 
science on account of its close relation to thinking, living, 
and many practical problems. The student in the future 
will get mental training from his science similar to that 
which he now receives from other subjects, which often 
have little else than their so-called disciplinary value to 
commend them. This will not come in ten years, per- 
haps not in twenty; it must be a matter of growth and the 
biology teachers will have to lead the way. When the in- 
struction in high school biology is as well organized as 
that in Latin (without preparation before the high school) 
or mathematics (preceded by excellent training in the 
grades) those in authority will not question the wisdom or 
value of two or even three or four year programmes for 
instruction in the subject. 

At the present time little is done in the way of organized 
nature study before the high school. About half the 
leading high school systems in this country attempt to 
carry on such work to some extent, and the proportion is 
much less in the smaller towns. It seems probable that 

1 School Science and Mathematics, vol. X, pp. 369-381. 



206 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the study of nature will become more and more prevalent 
in the grades, but at the present time it is not usually of 
enough importance to afford any sort of a basis for bio- 
logical instruction in the high school. 

If we turn to the school journals of our day for light 
on the present status of the high school biology curricu- 
lum, we find great diversity of opinion. There are advo- 
cates for one year biology courses, one year botany or 
zoology courses, agriculture, hygiene, ecology, physiology, 
economic biology, type study, classification, field-work, 
home work, museum work, and various other phases of 
biological instruction. The time actually devoted to bi- 
ology varies from one or two hours per week for half a 
year (in some places in the South) to as much as ten hours 
per week for ten months. Little progress will result 
from the agitation of such topics as the order of type study, 
how much the microscope should be used, or how much 
time should be spent in the field, or laboratory, or in the 
study of a text-book. These are details which should be 
left to the discretion of the teacher. In the opinion of the 
writer, the most hopeful sign for the future is the fact that 
two of the foremost high school biology teachers in the 
United States, Walter 1 and Linville, 2 have recently advo- 
cated courses based, not on classification nor a study of 
types, nor even on strict botany or zoology, but on ideas. 

Biology is confronted with two important problems in 
the high school; (i) it has more ground to cover than 
is possible in the allotted time, and (2) it is sometimes 
obliged to compete with its own subsciences, like agri- 

1 Walter, H. E., "An Ideal Course in Biology for the High School," 
School Science and Mathematics, vol. IX, pp. 717-724, 840-847. 

2 Linville, H. R., "Old and New Ideas in Biology Teaching," School 
Science and Mathematics, vol. X, pp. 210-216. 



BIOLOGY 207 

culture and physiology, and with such subjects as manual 
training and domestic science. Until adequate time is 
allowed, biology must present general principles or lose 
students through competition. This does not mean that 
high school students should study nothing but general 
ideas; in fact, it is better to make the major part of the 
work concrete, but exercises should be selected to illus- 
trate general facts, and presented so that students will 
receive such training that they can apply the knowledge 
they gain after they are out of school. The idea of gener- 
alization will meet with opposition from many teachers 
who have emphasized one side of biology for several years, 
and from those whose training has been narrow; but the 
writer sees no objection to selecting certain general prin- 
ciples which biologists might agree to teach in every high 
school in the United States, and which might form a basis 
for various courses in which the emphasis was placed on 
agriculture, human physiology, forestry, fisheries, or any- 
thing else that was important in a particular community. 
The time was when high school teachers knew so little 
that they were the slaves of tradition and authority, but 
at the present time most of them are able to think for 
themselves. There are many places in the United States 
where the very best work is being done by teachers who 
are able to adjust the great truths of biology to the ani- 
mals and plants in their vicinity, and to the students in 
their school. The writer takes the liberty of grouping 
biology teachers (without regard to their training) into 
four classes: (i) Those who assign lessons and conduct 
recitations; (2) those who not only require good recita- 
tions but also conduct acceptable laboratory work by 
the use of a manual; (3) those who combine laboratory 
and recitation work with field excursions and individual 



208 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

outside work by students, and (4) those who do all the 
things mentioned under (3) and also make their work a 
constant study, attempting to correlate their own knowl- 
edge and training with local conditions and new ideas in 
such a way that their students get the maximum amount 
of good. 

Obstacles to Successful Biology Teaching. — Probably 
the chief factor which has operated to inhibit progress 
in biological instruction has been respect for authority 
and tradition on the part of teachers. The limited train- 
ing formerly offered them gave no broad background of 
knowledge on which to draw for instruction. This re- 
sulted in narrow biology courses copied from those in 
universities. There has been a lack of willingness on the 
part of teachers to study the common things in their vi- 
cinity with their classes because they knew nothing about 
them. Hence, students have been obliged to grind over 
the matter their teacher learned in college, or to use a 
manual written by some college professor or some one 
who held to college methods and ideals. The colleges 
and universities have hindered, rather than helped, the 
high schools in this matter. Instead of allowing the 
high schools to work out a plan for their own salvation, 
colleges have often tied them down by arbitrary entrance 
requirements which compelled students to study certain 
types or phases of biological science to the exclusion of 
others. Furthermore, traditions have been fostered so 
long by some college departments that most high schools 
do not now give full credit for certain subjects unless two 
full years have been devoted to the study. Nothing but 
tradition permits carefully worked out detailed courses, 
which have little value to the majority of students except 
the training they give, to dominate the high school cur- 



BIOLOGY 209 

riculum to such an extent that other more practical sub- 
jects with equal training value are slighted. 

There has been a lack of good biology teachers, and 
the demand even now far exceeds the supply. Adequate 
training is of course necessary; some of the larger cities 
have recently gone so far as to require a master's or even 
a doctor's degree. The writer feels that four years of 
college work ought to suffice to train a biology teacher, 
if it is properly directed with emphasis in particular 
fields, and if the teacher takes measures to insure his own 
growth after graduation. A college student preparing to 
teach biology ought to take courses covering (i) the gen- 
eral principles of classification, morphology, physiology, 
ecology, geographical distribution, and evolution; (2) 
practical methods of teaching; (3) detailed knowledge of a 
number of types; (4) general knowledge concerning cer- 
tain topics, such as the history of biology and biological 
thought, and (5) general courses in physics, chemistry, 
geology, and psychology. But the lack of good teachers 
has not been altogether due to improper training nor to 
the limitations imposed on those who undertook such 
work; low salaries have kept many good teachers from 
pedagogical pursuits, and many have quit teaching for 
more remunerative occupations. However, no one gets 
more than he is worth in this world, and when our teach- 
ing is realized to be of practical value by practical people, 
the teacher will still get less than he is worth, but he will 
get more than he does now. The writer believes that the 
remedy lies in educating the teacher as well as the general 
public. 

Much poor teaching of biology has been done. There 
has often been a lack of adaptation to high school minds 
that has led from an absence of interest to careless work, 



210 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and sometimes to barefaced cheating and dishonesty. 
Teaching has often become a mere routine (dissect, ob- 
serve, draw) applied to one subject after another with- 
out any regard to the general bearing of such studies or 
to their practical application. A fault related to this has 
been that teachers have often made no distinction between 
intensive and extensive work. Careless methods have 
also been fostered because students were required to make 
detailed notes or drawings which the teacher did not cor- 
rect. A good teacher will so arrange his course that, with- 
out undue drudgery on his part, notes and drawings can 
be examined, and the student be made to feel that every- 
thing he does is to be checked. 

Cheating is often a difficult problem for the biology 
teacher, and his methods often place a premium on it. 
It is of course difficult, even if it is desirable, to prevent 
the best student at a laboratory table from setting a stand- 
ard for his fellows, who often copy without intending 
to do so; but the matter frequently goes farther. Two 
methods have been commonly used to secure independent 
work from students: (i) The work accomplished each 
day is handed to the teacher for correction at the end of 
the period; (2) students at the same table work on differ- 
ent plants or animals at the same time. The first method 
prevents copying while students are not under the super- 
vision of the teacher; the second helps to keep students 
who work together from dividing up the work or helping 
each other. If one boy works out the anatomy of an 
insect from a beetle, while the boy next him uses a grass- 
hopper and the girl across the table studies a bee with 
the same end in view, comparison and discussion are 
highly desirable. 

The greatest needs of high school biology at the present 



BIOLOGY 211 

time are: (i) More well trained teachers; (2) more free- 
dom for teachers to adapt their subject to the students, 
the community, and their own limitations; (3) more time, 
but not necessarily more specialized courses; (4) better 
stratification in the educational system («. e., better se- 
quence in science so that repetition is avoided) ; (5) more 
willingness on the part of teachers and educators gen- 
erally to study conditions with the idea of doing the stu- 
dent the most good. 



CHAPTER X 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 

William J. Sutherland, M.A. 

PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, PLATTEVILLE, WISCONSIN 

What Physiography Is. — Whenever the mature mind 
considers any phase of earth phenomena, its spirit of in- 
quiry looks for explanations. The causal element must 
be conceived before any phenomenon can be fully under- 
stood. This rational element is a characteristic of the 
new geography and is the essence of that specialized de- 
partment known as physical geography or physiography. 

A study of physical environment, without reference 
to its fitness as a habitat, is pure physiography. A study 
of the life of the earth, quite apart from its environing 
conditions, is anatomy or morphology. Modern methods 
in biology consider life with reference to environment. 
So general geography is concerned with both of these 
departments of science, which Professor Davis has de- 
nominated the " physiographic " and " ontographic " rela- 
tionships. Physiography may be termed the rational 
phase of general geography. 

As its name implies, physiography 1 is the study of phys- 
ical science as manifested in earth phenomena. It is the 
study of earth-physics. A gorge is observed to exist be- 

1 In this discussion physiography and physical geography are con- 
sidered identical in nature; the latter designates a more elementary 
treatment. 

212 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 213 

low the falls of a stream. The inquiring mind seeks to 
satisfy its curiosity through the discovery of the causes. 
The relative positions of hard and soft strata are dis- 
covered, and the reaction of the falling water noted. 
Other gorges and falls are examined; their features are 
compared with the first, and a conclusion relative to the 
philosophy of waterfalls is finally reached. Such, then, is 
a study in pure earth-science. 

It is sometimes charged that physiography is not itself 
a fundamental science; that it borrows its subject-matter 
from the other natural sciences, and that it is therefore 
conglomerate in nature, and hence unscientific. It is 
true that facts common to physics, chemistry, meteo- 
rology, geology, astronomy, etc., are employed also in 
physiography, but such use does not make the charge 
valid. How much chemistry is involved in the study of 
voltaic electricity, in the production of starch in green 
plants, and in the maintenance of temperature in animal 
bodies! Do not all of the specialized sciences overlap 
at some points ? Who can draw the line of demarcation 
between related sciences, e. g., between botany and zo- 
ology? The ultimate test of scientific character is not 
more concerned with the materials of a subject than with 
the use it makes of them. The masters of earth-science 
have organized and unified its somewhat diversified ma- 
terials into an intellectual structure quite as circumscribed 
and significant, quite as theoretical and functional, as is 
botany or physics or agriculture. One who fully com- 
prehends the interaction of processes which determines 
the "cycle" in earth-science, has reached a point where 
he can make a mental survey of the nicely articulated 
materials that contribute to the systematization of the 
subject. Its understanding requires a knowledge of the 



214 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

physiographic processes — diastrophism, gradation, and 
vulcanism — whose adequate elaboration 1 builds up the 
science of physical geography or physiography. 

New Methods of Study and Teaching. — Prior to the rec- 
ognition of the rational element of geography and the 
adoption of a physiographic basis, general geography was 
presented in a highly empirical or dogmatic manner. The 
new geography was really ushered in through the estab- 
lishment of the old geography upon a physiographic basis. 

Changed conceptions of education have engendered a 
critical attitude toward subject-matter values. Every 
subject must now submit to searching evaluation. The 
growing opinion is that science instruction should be 
concrete. Applied science is at a premium in secondary 
schools. The intrinsic and specific values of physical 
geography have been demonstrated. 

"Education and Life" is the popular slogan. The 
test of subject-matter units is their fitness to function in 
life. Hence the effects of earth features and processes 
are highly important. A waterfall is studied not more 
to determine the philosophy of its own existence than to 
discover and comprehend its influence on industries and 
the distribution of population. General geography is re- 
garded as the study of relationships that obtain between 
the inorganic and organic worlds, between controls and 
responses. Now these controls, 2 or conditions, are physi- 
ographic in nature and, taken together, constitute the 
content of physical geography. They are to be studied 
not as ends in themselves but as the governing conditions 
or controlling factors of physical environment. 

1 See "Physical Geography," Dryer, Chas. R., p. 241. 

2 See "Geographical Essays," Davis, W. M., chap. II; also "The 
Teaching of Geography," Sutherland, William J., chap. II. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 215 

It is evident that the nature and content of physi- 
ography must endow it with liberal, vitalizing, and theo- 
retical values. In scores of instances it explains phe- 
nomena. It is observed, e. g., that a continental margin 
abounds in good harbors. Scientific investigations reveal 
the facts that subsidence has occurred, that the lower river 
valleys have been drowned, and that good harbors and 
protected havens are the results. General geography 
would continue the logical sequence and note the effect of 
good harbors upon commerce, the growth of commercial 
centres, and the development of natural resources in the 
surrounding country. It is the rational element of phys- 
ical geography that explains and vitalizes geographical 
facts that otherwise would be abstract and dogmatic. 
Eliminate this element, and geography at once falls back 
into the empiricism of its early history. 

To summarize: 

(a) The essential element in the study of earth-science 
is that of relationship. 

(b) There are two approaches to the study of earth 
relationships, viz., the organic or life side, and the inor- 
ganic or physical side. 

(c) General geography is the study of physical controls 
and life responses, not in a specialized form, but as earth 
relationships. 

(d) Physiography is the study of physical environ- 
ment. It is the physical approach to earth relation- 
ships. 

The chief function of physiography is that of ad- 
justing the individual to his physical environment. This 
adjustment is at once practical and theoretical. It is 
practical in that every life form or industry is earth- 
determined in some particular, and theoretical in the 



216 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

sense that a knowledge of the relationships with which 
the subject so largely deals is necessary to any well organ- 
ized intellectual structure. 

All life is characterized by its environment. Savage 
and barbarous peoples adjust themselves almost wholly to 
their unmodified surroundings. Civilization is measured 
by its ability to modify and adjust nature to its more 
ideal uses. The increase in population and consequent 
drain upon natural resources make imperative finer and 
more intelligent readjustments of earth and earth prod- 
ucts for the purpose of satisfying the needs of mankind. 
National progress depends upon an understanding of 
earth conditions — upon geography. But earth conditions 
are comprehended largely through physical geography, 
e. g., when waterfalls determine the locations of factories 
and cities; when limestone and phosphate rocks attract 
a dense population to rich farm lands; or when over- 
hanging mountains temper the climate and determine 
the rainfall of adjacent plains. 

The utilization of natural resources is directly economic 
and indirectly social. The English landlords fought for 
the retention of the Corn Laws because these measures 
protected their wheat from foreign competition. The 
manufacturers sought to repeal them because cheaper 
and better food meant greater efficiency on the part of 
their laborers. Hence farm lands, mines, and raw cot- 
ton are translated into social conditions, and even into 
laws. 

The Change in Text-Books. — The early text-books in 
physical geography were unorganized and scrappy. They 
were too inclusive and their treatment of topics was un- 
purposeful. They were written to be learned, the style 
being dogmatic and sometimes catechetical. The illus- 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 217 

trations were ideal — made to order — and the consequent 
tendency of these texts was that of projecting the pupil's 
thought into some hazy distance. More fundamental in 
their weakness was the almost entire lack of theoretical 
conception. The subject seemed to have been thrown 
together for the purpose of building up a reference book 
rather than for any well conceived ulterior motive. 

With the advent of the new geography there has evolved 
a new order of text-books. And these books are nearly 
everything that the others were not. Scientific, concrete, 
and rational, they incorporate only materials that will 
relate the individual most advantageously to his physical 
environment. Scholars have conceived of environment 
as dynamic, stimulating, and controlling life forms, and 
they therefore have abandoned the passive, teleological 
scheme of the earth as a predestined and sufficient hab- 
itat. Our modern texts have selected their materials so 
wisely, and with scientific spirit have elaborated and ar- 
ticulated them so well, that unity and method are insured. 

The Change in Method of Presentation. — In method of 
presentation the old empirical 1 procedure has been made 
to yield to an inductive, observational, and problematical 2 
treatment. Manuals have been prepared to supplement 
regular texts that have not incorporated suitable problems 
and exercises. And constant reference to the earth itself, 
together with the vitalization that comes through the em- 
ployment of wisely selected half-tones, tends to cultivate 
the true spirit of earth relationship. 

Material Equipment. — Geographical laboratories are 
still so uncommon that many teachers have never seen a 
good one. But they are becoming more common and 

1 Empirical in the sense of dogmatic. 

2 Presenting problems for solution." 



218 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

there are some good ones. Serviceable apparatus 1 has 
been adapted to work in physiography. Mapping, model- 
ling, graphing, observing, interpreting, verifying, and re- 
cording are daily exercises in well-equipped laboratories. 2 
Educational Value of Physiography. — The educational 
value of physiography is never questioned by those 
who have been close students of the subject. Its con- 
tribution to educational development certainly can be 
questioned when its teaching is committed to the hands 
of unprepared teachers — as so frequently happens — and 
when no adequate equipment has been provided. Phys- 
ics, chemistry, biology, and manual training now com- 
mand reasonable material advantages for the insurance 
of satisfactory results. Physical geography, when prop- 
erly handled, readily proves its worth. From either the 
point of view of pure science or applied science, the sub- 
ject seems to be rich in educative value. Pure science 
seeks to discover the truth for truth's sake. But truth, 
when discovered or apprehended, must be referred to 
proper categories and rendered scientific through method. 
It has been found that earth-science yields to scientific 
method quite as readily as do physics, chemistry, and 

1 The following pieces of apparatus are considered necessary to a well- 
equipped laboratory: Mercurial and self-recording barometer; aneroid 
barometer; hygrometer and thermometers; self-recording and maximum 
and minimum thermometer; sun-board (Goode's) or helior; clinometer 
compass; plane table and alidade; rain gauge; anemometer; large globe; 
supply of small globes; collections of rocks and minerals; suitable lab- 
oratory tables; models (the Harvard Geographical Models) and model- 
ling tables; maps, charts, pictures, and stereopticon ; a good supply of 
United States Geological Survey maps, weather maps, coast charts, pilot 
charts, etc. 

2 For suggestions, see " Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology," 
Ward, Robert DeC, Appendix B; also "The Equipment of a Geo- 
graphical Laboratory," Davis, W? M-, Journal of School Geography, 
May, 1898. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 219 

botany. Again it is quite likely that those who advocate 
"science for science's sake" also recognize values of 
discipline. Viewed in this light, physical geography cer- 
tainly ranks well with other physical sciences in genuine 
educational value. Professor W. M. Davis has devel- 
oped model exercises that well illustrate scientific method. 1 

Place in the Curriculum. — An evaluation of physical 
geography as applied science makes the justification of 
its place in the secondary curriculum still easier. Our 
newer psychology and pedagogy place a premium on 
subject-matter that promises to function in life. Physical 
geography is the study of physical environment, and 
hence it touches life directly. Viewed in this light, it 
seeks not only to understand observed phenomena but to 
comprehend their effect upon life. It so occurs that we 
become less interested in the form and structure of moun- 
tains, and more concerned with their effect or influence 
on winds, temperature, and rainfall. It seems, further, 
that this view vitalizes the subject of discussion. Geog- 
raphy is dignified — even exalted — when this larger con- 
ception is gained. For example, in connection with the 
heavy precipitation in the Puget Sound region, its effect 
upon the development of forests, upon the relatively high 
winter temperature, and upon the needs and customs of 
the people who live in this region, should be considered. 

It has been urged that physical geography performs 
an important educational function, either as an intro- 
ductory or a correlative science. These ideas have had 
much to do in assigning it its particular place in the 
curriculum. Usually it is taught in the freshman year, 
the argument being that it is related closely to the bio- 
logical and physical sciences, and that its study results 

1 " Geographical Essays," Davis, W. M., chaps. X and XI. 



220 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

in the establishment of an apperceptive system from 
which an easy transition can be made to the other spe- 
cialized sciences. The fact that physical geography has 
not been included in the list required for college entrance 
has worked to its disadvantage. Teachers quite unpre- 
pared to deal with the subject, inadequate equipments, 
and an odd hour, have been assigned to physical geog- 
raphy. Is it not evident that those in charge have attrib- 
uted little value to the subject, except perhaps as a sort 
of general forerunner of the other high school sciences 
which, owing to the immaturity of freshmen, are reserved 
for the later years of the course ? 

Physical geography and physiography differ only in 
degree of dimcultness. Physiography was recommended 
for the senior year of the high school by the "Committee of 
Ten." The conception that led to this recommendation 
was that physiography would serve an important func- 
tion in correlating the other sciences of the course. The 
committee realized also that it was a strong study and 
required some maturity of mind. 

Earth-Science an Inspiring Subject. — A criticism can 
be passed on either of the views just cited inasmuch as 
they seek to justify the study of earth-science — either as 
physical geography or physiography — on a theoretical 
basis. That is, earth-science may serve to introduce or 
correlate other subjects, and hence the inference that it 
does not possess specific and intrinsic values. When 
well taught, earth-science is a rich and inspiring subject. 
It possesses in a high degree practical and cultural worth. 
The writer does not care to measure the value of any 
subject on the questionable basis of disciplinary power, 
though even on this basis its strong rational element 
would give physiography high rank. Through its varied 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 221 

relationships, it is endowed with functions, complement- 
ary and illuminating, which contribute much to the 
building up of stable and symmetrical science units. 

The vacillating attitude that is often manifested 
toward physiography as a worthy secondary subject, is 
seeking explanation. Leading educators attribute the 
indifference to the fact that the subject has figured but 
little in college entrance. 1 It does not follow, however, 
that, because a subject has long been recognized for 
college entrance, it is paramount in educational value. 
Subjects are withheld in this connection on traditional 
grounds, and because of their definite, formal, and theo- 
retical values. "The sooner colleges give up the idea 
of controlling high school courses, the better it will be 
for the colleges," says a leading educator and geographer. 
It may be added that if, irrespective of all articulating 
systems, high school supervisors would equip and man 
departments of earth-science, and give the instruction 
as fair an opportunity to succeed as is now given other 
science subjects, it would not be long before this subject 
gained general recognition for its inherent interest and 
its practical worth. 

Improvement in Method of Presentation. — In method 
of geographical presentation, great improvement has 
been made during the past fifteen years. Teachers now 
specialize in geography and, along with specialization, 
method develops. By method the writer has not in mind 
mere pedagogical method or class-room device, but that 
deeper method which is the outgrowth of a profound 

1 See "Physiography in the High School," Salisbury, R. D., Journal of 
Geography, November, 19 10; also "Problems in the Teaching of Physical 
Geography in Secondary Schools," Fenneman, N. M., Journal of Geog- 
raphy, March, 1909. 



222 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

study of subject-matter itself. As has been stated else- 
where, general method in geography, and also in phys- 
iography as designed for secondary schools, is the re- 
sultant of three components, viz., 

(a) The intrinsic nature of the subject. 

(b) The needs of the individual in his life relationships. 

(c) The educative process through which the pupil 
comes into possession of these relationships. 

Since our recent geographical renaissance, marked 
progress has been made in: 

(a) The delimitation of the field of physiography, 
making it more definite and coherent. 

(b) The infusion of an acceptable earth-philosophy 
into the selected subject-matter, thereby contributing to 
its significance and substance. 

(c) The articulation of the subject-matter units yield- 
ing a well-organized science. 

(d) The substitution for the old empirical 1 and de- 
scriptive method of one that is concrete, inductive, and 
problematical. 

(e) The subordination of mere data and the accentua- 
tion of far-reaching principles. 2 

The examination of our best courses in physiography 
warrants the statement that they are quite as definite as 
are courses in other high-school sciences. 3 Space does 
not permit full discussion or illustration of method, but 
in general it may be said that the approved method sets 
a problem for solution; it guides the pupil in observing 
phenomena and selecting data either in the laboratory or 

1 Dogmatic. 

2 For commercial reasons text-books do not always represent the best 
thought of our leading teachers. 

3 See "Manual of Physical Geography," Emerson, Frederick Valentine. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 223 

in the field; it necessitates the " working-over " of the 
concrete data and the formulation of a general princi- 
ple. With mature high school pupils the generalization 
may involve hypotheses which are tested carefully under 
the teacher's guidance, and one after another discarded 
until one is found that seems to satisfy the conditions 
imposed by the data. The generalization made, the 
pupils are now assigned new problems of a deductive 
nature in which, through field or laboratory work, new 
individual instances are brought under the general rule. 
This problem requires the securing of data, the recalling 
of the principle, the making and verification of the in- 
ference. 1 

The grade of work just suggested should not be at- 
tempted before the junior or senior year of the high 
school. 2 It seems very unlikely that two courses — one 
preliminary and one advanced — will ever be recognized 
in secondary education. It is recommended, therefore, 
that physiography be given in the senior year. If the 
geography of the elementary school be given a strong 
physiographic setting, if excursions and field trips are 
made to establish some definite notions, and if this 
preparation be supplemented by the study of physics, 
chemistry, and biology in the high school, pupils of 
senior standing will be able to do a fairly representative 
course in physiography. 

The recognition accorded earth-science in secondary 
education has already been hinted. It is usually taught 
in the freshman year, but with such poor provisions that 
it is quite unfair to pass judgment upon its educational 

1 See "The Teaching of Geography," Sutherland, William J., p. 156. 

2 If physiography must be taught in the freshman year, the same gen- 
eral plan should be adhered to, the work being made somewhat easier. 



224 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

returns. Just what the future may bring is hard to 
predict. But with the present tendency in favor of ap- 
plied science, with the strong endeavor to close the gap 
between education and life, and with the evolution of 
scientific and functional courses in physiography, the 
coming years would seem to augur well. 

Need for Well-Prepared Teachers. — The great need 
at present is for properly prepared teachers. Respect 
for physiography will increase when it is more effectively 
presented, for then its educational value will become more 
apparent. That there is a growing interest in this field 
of study is evidenced by the development of departments 
of geography in our leading institutions. Harvard, 
Columbia, Cornell, and Chicago universities maintain 
departments to which the country at large is indebted for 
incentive and guidance. 

Preparation of Teacher. — The deficiency of geography 
teachers is mainly on the academic side. An adequate 
preparation to teach physiography demands considerable 
knowledge of physics, chemistry, meteorology, geology, 
biology, etc., all of which should be worked over with 
special reference to this particular subject. A " feeling 
for the subject is indispensable to success in any high 
degree," says Professor Salisbury, and this attitude comes 
only through prolonged and earnest study of earth 
phenomena. 

Presupposing a reasonable professional attitude, the 
high-school physiography teacher's preparation 1 should 
include: 

(a) A knowledge of the physiographic processes which 
explain our varied environmental conditions. 

1 See "New Basis of Geography," Redway, J. W., chap. XII; also 
"The Teaching of Geography," Sutherland, William J., chap. IX. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY 225 

(b) A knowledge of physiographic features and regions 
that gives the teacher a reasonable acquaintance with the 
world and enables him to illustrate readily. 

(c) A familiarity with the best books, periodicals, gov- 
ernment publications and other sources of information, 
and an acquired skill in their use. 

(d) The ability to use the hands well in performing 
experiments, drawing, and modelling. 

(e) A thorough knowledge of maps, especially the 
United States Geological Survey maps, atlases, and folios, 
with an appreciation of their worth in teaching. 

(/) A well-organized knowledge of general geography, 
such as will contribute those biological, economic, and 
social responses necessary to make pure physiography 
significant. 

(g) A love of nature and some ability in interpreting 
earth features on both large and small scales. 

(h) And lastly, an evolutionary or scientific conception 
of earth and life, that unifies and enriches geographical 
facts and inspires the appreciation of man. 

Promise of Future Progress. — There seem to be no 
valid psychological reasons or practical difficulties that 
should retard the higher development and more general 
recognition of worthy courses in physiography in Ameri- 
can schools, comparable to the work in German and 
English schools. The changing conceptions of educa- 
tion and educational values seem to give promise of future 
progress in earth-science. The general awakening to 
its possibilities will encourage geographical study and 
continue to demonstrate the value and function of physi- 
ography as a secondary subject. 



CHAPTER XI 
ENGLISH 

Joseph Villiers Denney, A.M. 

DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, AND SCIENCE, AND 
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 

Triumph of Democratic Spirit in Education. — The most 
impressive fact in the educational movement of the last 
forty years is the triumph of the democratic spirit. This 
spirit expresses a conviction that at the proper time and 
in due course, every young American shall have free 
access to every kind of knowledge and discipline that is 
suited to his needs, tastes, and ambitions. Hence, to 
an extent hardly dreamed of as possible two generations 
ago, science, political ideas, literature, and the arts, both 
fine and useful, have come into the secondary programme 
of studies. Much of this new spirit has centred in the 
study of English, since English culture expresses the so- 
cial level of the community and of the individual citizen. 1 
Studied as a tool for mastery, English contributes to social 
efficiency. Studied as a fine art, it reveals the laws of 
all the arts which are also the laws of living. Studied as 
a body of literature, it reveals in beautiful forms the ideals 
— patriotic, social, domestic, religious — which the race has 
cherished in the past and which democracy needs now 

1 Baker, G. F., " Address on English," Washington, D. C., December, 
1902. 

226 



ENGLISH 227 

more than ever before. 1 The various purposes of the 
study as usually stated — (i) to enable people to under- 
stand the expressed thought of others, (2) to enable 
people to express their own thoughts effectively, (3) to 
cultivate appreciation of good literature 2 — all point to 
one unifying purpose — the creation of universal intelli- 
gibility, on high levels of thought, among the multitudes 
who are to be self-governing. 

Unifying Principle of Method. — This comprehensive 
and unifying purpose in the different English disciplines 
is matched by a unifying principle of method that has 
been supplied by psychology. 3 Certain activities of 
mind that English study calls into play prove to be 
constants; they are the same (though in varying degrees 
and proportions) for all kinds of work with the mother 
tongue. They are alike essential to reading, spelling, 
grammar, composition. 

Four Things Necessary in Reading. — In order really 
to read, what must take place ? First of all, there must 
be observation; the reader must look until he sees — sees 
the thought of sentence, paragraph, chapter, book — in 
its entirety. The thought is one thing and reading is a 
sensing of this one thing. Observation must continue, 
therefore, until there is perception of the thought. 
Secondly, the learner must discriminate; he must ob- 
serve until he can select between important and unim- 
portant, between subject and predication, between prin- 
cipal and modifier, and he must be able to pick out these 
things. Thirdly, he must take subject and predication 
out of the mass of modifying elements and must con- 

1 McMurry, C. A., "Special Method in English Classics." 

2 " Report of Committee of Ten," p. 86. 

3 Lewes, " Principles of Success in Literature." 



228 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

template them by themselves in order to test the truth of 
the statement they make; and if he finds that they make 
an incongruous assertion, he must observe them anew 
in their original setting in order to get them right. Lastly, 
he must be able to restate the thought in terms of his 
own experience. 

Spelling and Grammar. — The same activities are called 
into play in learning to spell. The trouble with most poor 
spellers is that they will not look long enough to see, or, 
if they are ear-spellers, will not listen attentively enough 
to hear; will not select the particular difficulty of a trouble- 
some word for special attention; will not, finally, make 
the recombination test in other words involving the same 
difficulty. In parsing there must be, likewise, the scru- 
tiny of the sentence until it divides itself into subject and 
predicate, into phrases and clauses standing in certain re- 
lations; then the choice and abstraction of the particular 
construction undergoing study, and, finally, the recom- 
bination of this construction in an original sentence. 

Original Composition. — Pre-eminently in original com- 
position, however elementary or advanced, there must be 
observation or study up to the point of perception or 
insight; there must be the choice of things to say and of 
things to omit, in view of the purpose in writing; there 
must be the abstraction of the things selected in order 
that they may be contemplated by themselves, and, if 
necessary, supplemented by a new observation; and 
there must be the recombination, the writing or speak- 
ing of the whole. Original composition, however, makes 
far greater demands upon these activities than do spell- 
ing, reading, and grammar. For in original composi- 
tion, the observation, selection, abstraction, recombi- 
nation, must be first-hand, whereas, in the others, there 



ENGLISH 229 

need be only a rediscovery and reproduction of the results 
of these activities in the final work of others. 1 

The Constructive Imagination. — Now these activities 
that underlie all work with English are what the modern 
psychologist means when he speaks of "the constructive 
imagination." They suggest a fundamental methodology 
for English instruction. More than this, the cultivation of 
these activities is what is most needed in order to obtain 
the ends — moral, aesthetic, social, practical — of all secon- 
dary school instruction. They are needed in the work 
of the world if that work is to be well done. We easily 
translate these constituents of imagination into terms of 
art, morals, social efficiency, citizenship. " Clear seeing 
and truthful reporting" is the final word in all of the 
arts and sciences. Rightly understood, these two com- 
prise all that can be done in either realm of achievement. 
Artist and scientist are credible only as they have insight 
or vision and report with truth. Moreover, the laws of 
construction which the reader discovers in a literary 
masterpiece, and which he attempts to observe in his 
own work as far as he may, are the laws of all of the arts 
and crafts. In leading readers and writers to detect and 
obey these laws, the teacher of English is developing 
the art instinct in the young. Further, these laws have 
also a direct application in the moral realm, a meaning 
so obvious that no youth can miss it. Selection is the 
principle of choice, abstraction is reflection and judgment, 
recombination in writing and speaking is the effort to 
make perceived truth or beauty intelligible, pleasurable, 
serviceable socially; unity is integrity, accuracy is truth- 
telling, method is law and order, due proportion is re- 

1 " Contributions to Rhetorical Theory," No. Ill, Bulletins of the 
University of Michigan. 



230 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

straint and temperance. Our terms are the terms of art, 
but they embody meanings that are highly significant for 
right living and good citizenship. 

In Germany, where these, the ultimate ends of language 
and literature, have long been perceived by teachers of 
the mother-tongue, importance and dignity have been 
gained for even the minutest and most mechanical parts 
of language work. The small things get their true value 
and their due attention because of their known relation 
to the great ends which they are to subserve — right 
ideals, personal power, good habits — in a word, social 
efficiency. In America this clear perception of organic 
relationship between letters and living has been slower 
in coming. But each increase in the time-allotment for 
English in the secondary curriculum, each enrichment 
of the content of the course, has been due to some better 
conception of the ultimate value of English studies to 
society. 1 

Various Ideals of English Study. — The first ideal was 
grammatical correctness, and so long as that ideal pre- 
vailed the single year of grammatical analysis, with oc- 
casional " rhetoricals " and essays, was sufficient. The 
next ideal was rhetorical correctness. It found expres- 
sion in the Harvard requirement of 1874 that English 
composition and a few pieces of English literature should 
be studied, the end proposed being "accurate methods 
of thought and expression." Meanwhile, the growth of 
commercial courses, expressing the dissatisfaction of the 
business element with the traditional curriculum, kept 
alive the ideal of grammatical correctness. The ideal 
of immediate practical utility embodied in the commer- 

1 Herford, " The Bearing of English Studies upon the National Life," 
The English Association, June, 1910. 



ENGLISH 231 

cial courses meant a rapid development in letter-writing, 
especially business correspondence, and greater atten- 
tion than ever to the necessary details of grammar, 
spelling, punctuation, and form. The present ideal of 
social efficiency began to emerge after 1879, when the 
New England Association made an attempt to secure a 
uniform scheme of requirements for admission to col- 
leges. This attempt was the beginning of a protracted 
consideration of educational values, including English, 
and the outcome was a permanent commission (1885), 
the English conferences soon after, and the "Committee 
of Ten" appointed by the National Education Associa- 
tion in 1892. 

American educators were profoundly impressed and 
influenced by the declaration of the present Emperor of 
Germany, early in his reign, which began in 1888, in 
favor of a secondary curriculum for Germans that should 
give pre-eminence to the study of German language and 
literature, German mythology and history, German art 
and culture. This utterance emboldened those Ameri- 
cans who realized that a higher end than correctness 
must be proposed for English in the schools. In all of 
the investigations, discussions, conferences, and course- 
making that have since taken place, there has been accu- 
mulating evidence of the clearer perception of the social 
value of English. 

Tests Applied. — This test has sometimes been narrowly 
applied, as in the exclusively utilitarian demand of the 
business man, in the fixed reading lists of the colleges 
(until recent years), in certain vocational demands upon 
English teachers in manual training and agricultural 
high schools, in the premium put upon American as 
distinguished from English literature. But these have 



232 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

served to open discussions that have invariably led to a 
less partial view. 

Results Attained by English Study. — The more im- 
portant results for English ideals growing out of the dis- 
cussions especially of the last twenty years may now be 
briefly stated: 

i. Correctness, whether grammatical or rhetorical, is 
to be sought in all rational ways, but it is not the chief 
end of English instruction. It comes as fast as the social 
need for it is realized. The real effort for it begins when 
the youth conceives of himself as a member of a highly 
conventional society, and of good language as a requisite 
for winning favorable consideration for himself. Like 
bad manners, bad English is penalized by society, and 
nowhere so relentlessly as in business circles. The finest 
manners and language arise from an instinctive desire 
to please and not to offend. Correctness must come 
from the social motive. The teacher of correctness must 
supply the motive. 1 

2. The end of English study being social efficiency, the 
form in which an idea is to be expressed is functional. 
The end to be achieved, the purpose in view, the person 
addressed, the social situation involved, combine to de- 
termine what, in a given case, the form shall be. Rhetoric 
is adaptation of means to end. 2 

3. English is almost the only opportunity available in 
the secondary school for acquainting pupils with the 
fundamental laws of art, which are also the laws of moral 
living. These laws are to be apprehended by analysis 
of the masterpieces of literature; they are to be applied 
by the individual in his composition-practice. They 

l Thurber, C. H., "Five Axioms," School Review, 6:7. 

2 Genung, "Principles of Rhetoric"; Spencer, "Philosophy of Style." 



ENGLISH 233 

are ineffective unless the attempt is made thus to ap- 
ply them. 

4. Most important of all is the perception of the social 
function of literature which is to be thought of by the 
secondary teacher mainly as a contact with ideas, rather 
than as a form study, mainly as a revelation in beautiful 
form of the aspirations and ideals of the race. A specific 
benefit for the individual is also to be sought from the 
study of literature, a benefit experienced, according to 
temperament, as consolation, inspiration, aesthetic pleas- 
ure, or sense of growth, but invariably thought of by the 
teacher in terms of character building. The idealism of 
literature also tends to prevent too narrow, too coarse, 
too "practical" a view of "social efficiency." 

Improvement in Text-Books. — With the growth of so- 
cial aims in English teaching, an improved text-book 
presentation of the subject appeared. Originally, rhet- 
oric, as a topic in philosophy, was presented in the form 
of numerous definitions supported by reasoning and il- 
lustrated by examples. So many varieties of things, es- 
pecially figures of speech, were catalogued that the term 
"botany rhetoric" was used to describe this class of 
books. When the ideal of "correctness" came in, these 
books gave way to a different kind of texts, which were 
repositories of all the sorts of errors in English that writers 
ever are guilty of. With the better understanding of 
the final ends to be achieved, a new crop of texts ap- 
peared. These emphasized constructive rather than crit- 
ical power, and offered practice in writing a larger unit 
than the single sentence and a smaller unit than the 
formal essay. The single sentence does not long con- 
tinue sufficient for expressing thought; the long essay is 
practically unmanageable in the class room. The para- 



234 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

graph, then, became the object of study and effort, with 
the sentence of secondary interest. The social aspect 
of composition work is brought within the reach of the 
pupil's comprehension in the later texts by requiring him 
to write for a specified audience, in a specified character, 
and for a specified purpose. Thus, composition writing 
has become in the school the same thing as it is in the 
newspaper office or elsewhere in the world — the pro- 
duction of a body of intelligible discourse; to be corrected 
and revised in all of its details before being given any 
form of publication, but not to be written for the sole 
purpose of correction and revision; rather to be written 
for the purpose of communicating ideas. 

The inference which these later texts have drawn 
from the doctrine of specific disciplines is that theme 
writing in schools should not be confined to one species — 
the book review — but should enter all of the fields of 
human interest within range of the secondary student's 
experience. Both in choice of topics and in kinds of 
writing attempted, great variety should appear. Hence 
the substitution of many short and varied themes for a 
few long ones. Recognizing composition as an art, these 
texts have not hesitated to utilize pictures, sculpture, 
architecture, and music, as well as literature, both as 
models for structural analysis and as affording subjects 
of interest in new fields. But they utilize, far more, sub- 
jects drawn from personal experience. These lie near- 
est at hand. These offer the opportunity of bringing the 
student in contact with many situations which he will 
have to deal with later in life. These help to make com- 
mon life interesting. 

Improvement in Methods of Teaching Composition. — 
Refinement of method in conducting composition work 



ENGLISH 235 

has kept pace with improved text-books. As the real 
character of composition as an art is appreciated, writ- 
ing (or oral composition) is the usual employment of the 
class hour, rather than reciting. In order that writing 
may be done within artistic limitations, it is preceded by 
prescribed observation or reading, note taking, arrange- 
ment of data, and tentative outlining. In the class there 
is, first, oral composition, each reporting his discoveries 
for the benefit of all; then a common outline is made, 
and, with this to guide, all write, or each speaks in his 
turn. The teacher who is overburdened with themes 
will utilize oral composition often, but no real teacher of 
composition will ever be without a set of themes. The 
mechanical features of writing are taught by an induc- 
tive study of models. Some of them are best taught in 
the individual correction of themes. Widely prevalent 
error is dealt with in the class hour, usually by work at the 
blackboard. Incentives to care in grammar and idiom, 
spelling, punctuation, and other details are (a) self-inter- 
est — the desire to be esteemed for social competency and 
to escape the social penalties of trivial blundering; (b) 
altruism — the desire to save the time of other people, to 
be a help rather than a hindrance; and (c) pride in the 
mother-tongue, which implies the desire to create better 
public standards of which a purer speech is indicative. 
The warfare upon errors of speech is waged in many ways 
and by the use of many devices. Whenever possible, the 
co-operation of all teachers in the school is enlisted in 
this warfare. The conviction grows stronger everywhere, 
however, that the true object of correction is to teach self- 
correction. Hence the private consultation hour, with its 
opportunity for individual instruction and for supplying 
right motives, has become a necessity, especially in large 



236 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

schools. The class room is the chief place of publication. 
The teacher reads commendable parts of many themes, 
and sometimes gives A's theme to B merely because it 
is interesting. Publication in some sort is an absolute 
necessity; no one can write well unless he is sure of a 
reader or hearer. Communication, not mere expression, 
is the reason for writing. Publication in the class room 
offers also an opportunity for judicious criticism, the 
writer remaining unknown to his classmates, but this 
open criticism must never convey to the writer, though 
unnamed, the feeling of discouragement and defeat. Crit- 
icism should be sympathetic and constructive. 

Improvement in Methods of Teaching English Classics. 
— Refinement of method in the study of English classics 
has also been rapid and steady. Minute textual criti- 
cism no longer monopolizes the notes of school editions. 
In the later editions, a very great increase is noticeable 
in the queries, notes, and references that call attention to 
literary values, both the aesthetic and the ethical, and to 
the larger features of structure. As in the composition 
work, a new type of teacher has come; a teacher who 
tries to understand the specific needs of the adolescent 
pupil and tries to use literature advisedly in satisfying 
some of these needs; a teacher who is aware of the im- 
pulses to altruism, to religion, self-sacrifice, adventure, 
and hero-worship, that crowd in upon youth of high 
school age; the distracting tendencies to passive enjoy- 
ment of nature, solitude, and the inner life, on the one 
hand, and to ambition for active service and glorious 
achievement, or enthusiasm for "society," on the other. 
In prescribing reading, especially home reading, the 
teacher is spiritual physician. It is axiomatic in English 
teaching that a compelling motive for every new effort 



ENGLISH 237 

should be supplied — one motive selected out of several 
that are always plausible. The kind of pleasure to be 
expected from contact with a new classic should accord- 
ingly be announced, whether it be pleasure in admirable 
characters, unexpected incident, mood, fresh ideas, nature 
description, imagery, music, or insight into the value and 
meaning of specific situations in real life. Purpose is a 
large word in the teaching of English. 

In the class room itself conditions favorable to under- 
standing and appreciation must be supplied. If the 
teacher is a good reader, or there are good readers in the 
class, oral interpretation is often helpful, as difficult pas- 
sages are encountered. If there are good singers, some 
of the lyrics that have been set to music should be sung. 
As many of the themes of literature are also themes of 
painting and sculpture, worthy reproductions of the mas- 
terpieces in these arts should be sought. The portfolios 
of pictures gradually collected by the teacher to accom- 
pany the study of the English classics will be of constant 
aid in creating right conditions. Gayley's "Classic 
Myths in English Literature" should be known and read 
by every youth in the land. 

The Class Hour. — The class hour presents the real test 
of teaching. Shall it be used for examination? or for 
stimulus ? Few teachers attend to both with equal facility. 
Usually, if a teacher succeed in one, he is indifferent to 
the other. To offset personal bias, it is wise to leave a 
large place in the class hour for individual reports. The 
pupils have the floor, while the teacher is generous in 
his incidental outgivings. The work is social and co- 
operative, each pupil reporting for the benefit of all on a 
topic or a question previously assigned. The topics and 
questions deal with the principal thoughts and senti- 



238 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ments, with structural analysis, with conspicuous points 
of style and beauty. They should include (a) questions 
that will ensure intellectual understanding, (b) questions 
that will lead to appreciation, (c) questions that use the 
classics in order to help the pupil to a better understand- 
ing of life. 1 A few questions are better than many; no 
question should lack definite purpose, and each should 
be assigned with some reference to individual aptitude; 
this, because it is necessary that the pupil succeed, after 
reasonable effort, in doing commendable work. The 
feeling of growth in understanding, in appreciation, in 
competence, is better than all criticism and correction. 
The pupil's own crude inferences from the reading as- 
signed are better than his reproductions of ready-made 
opinions from the critics. The teacher will prove his 
humanism by offering one question hour on each classic, 
when he does the reciting as his pupils present their diffi- 
culties. Confidence secured, all things are possible. 

Miscellaneous Student Activities. — Recognizing the 
wider social relations of his work, the good teacher of 
English will not be indifferent to the student activities 
about him, in the literary and debating clubs, the read- 
ing clubs, the dramatic club, and the school publication. 
These require his active interest, his occasional presence, 
his constant advice, if they are to be of value. Walking 
clubs can be utilized as observation clubs in the English 
work. Visits to the library, with explanation of the use of 
catalogues and reference books, are useful. At least one 
large high school has a Round Table of teachers and older 
pupils for the discussion of the serious problems of life. 

1 Collections of these questions have been published. The most recent 
are: Thomas, "How to Teach English Classics"; Marsh and Royster, 
"Teachers' Manual for the Study of English Classics." 



ENGLISH 239 

Meeting the Needs of the Individual. — The present 
problems of English teaching arising from the call for 
vocational education, from the demands of the commercial 
interests, from the college requirements, essentially repeat 
the old problem of the elective system. The teacher, 
who sees clearly the final purposes of English instruction, 
makes easy concessions to special demands merely by 
prescribing theme work and out-of-class reading that are 
deemed suitable for those concerned, without sacrificing 
in the least degree the discipline that is vital to all. 

Preparation for Teaching. — Preparation for teaching 
English in the high school implies a broad college course 
rather than high specialization in English itself. The 
wider the teacher's acquaintance and sympathy with the 
different fields of scholarship and human endeavor, the 
better for him and for his pupils. In the field of English 
he must, of course, be widely read in the various periods 
and he should not neglect recent and current literature. 
He should know English and American history in their 
relation to literature. By mastering at least one language 
and literature besides English he has sure grounds of 
comparison. He perceives the permanence of literary 
themes and the contemporary nature of literary imagery. 
By adding to this some knowledge of Old and Middle 
English, he equips himself for a right understanding of 
modern English idiom. If he knows the history and 
principles of education, he may save himself from repeat- 
ing some of the blunders of the past. Since success in 
his work depends upon establishing relations of confi- 
dence he needs more than other teachers to cultivate a 
liking for young people. Of prime importance to him 
are tolerance, patience, enthusiasm, a good voice, and a 
capacity for humor. 



240 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Need for More Teachers. — The chief obstacle to a 
fuller realization of the great purposes of English in the 
secondary school is the failure of school authorities to pro- 
vide a sufficient number of English teachers. Allowance is 
not made, as it should be made, for the theme reading, the 
consultation hour, the personal attention which the Eng- 
lish teacher feels it his duty to give to student activities. 1 

Continuity Desirable. — The work of the high school in 
English should be continuous from the first year through 
the last. In any one semester each pupil should get 
all of his English instruction from one teacher and not 
from several. This permits correlations especially be- 
tween composition, English classics, and literary history, 
that would otherwise be difficult. It permits, at times, 
when the need is seen, a concentration of attention upon 
a single element of English — grammar, for instance — and 
keeps all of the elements in right relation to reading and 
composition, the two main lines of effort. 

General Scheme of Work. — Usually during the first two 
years the time is evenly divided between these two lines. 
In the last two years the proportion is one for compo- 
sition to four for classics. In the earlier years the reading 
prescribed follows, in a general way, the scheme of the 
composition work, narration and description receiving 
the lion's share of attention; exposition, however, not 
being omitted. Later the study of Burke, Washington, 
Webster, and Lincoln eventuates in the writing of argu- 
mentative essays and the preparation of a debate. 

1 A special investigation of the physical problems of English compo- 
sition teaching is now proceeding under the direction of a committee of 
the English Section of the Central Division of the Modern Language 
Association, Professor E. M. Hopkins, chairman. A preliminary report 
of this committee was issued in April, 191 1, by the Graduate Magazine 
Press of the University of Kansas. 



ENGLISH 241 

Selection of Reading. — In selecting reading for high 
school pupils, it is already well understood that the chief 
principle of choice should be the known needs of the 
adolescent. These are now pretty accurately deter- 
mined and described. What is lacking in pedagogical 
practice at present, is an agreement on the one chief 
purpose for which each classic should be taught. Each 
classic will lend itself readily to several plausible 
purposes. The present need, from the view-point of the 
secondary teacher, is a programme of student readings 
arranged to cover the very numerous and widely diversi- 
fied interests of the secondary pupil, in an orderly way; 
each piece of reading in its turn to subserve a single one 
of these numerous interests and all together to cover the 
field in at least a rudimentary way. To this end, two 
things are recognized as necessary: (i) Of the numer- 
ous benefits — ethical, aesthetic, or practical — to be de- 
rived from contact with each classic, the principal one 
must be agreed upon more or less arbitrarily in order 
that each teacher may know what to work for. (2) 
There must be a long period, say ten years, of experi- 
mentation in many schools operated under different 
conditions, as Professor Hanus has suggested for the arith- 
metic question of the elementary schools. Such a wide- 
spread experimentation will discover (1) whether a given 
classic is being taught with the best purpose in view, and 
(2) whether it has been properly placed in the course. 
Much of this experimenting has already been done. 
Many of the classics have now found their most advan- 
tageous place in the secondary curriculum. A study of 
numerous high school programmes of reading in the 
English classics reveals a surprising amount of agree- 
ment among programme makers who have been work- 



242 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ing independently. In the following programme only 
those classics are included concerning which a tacit agree- 
ment has evidently been reached by many schools. In 
view of the chief purpose, the need and the interest 
of the pupil, other considerations follow as corollaries. 

(a) Variety in reading-matter is provided for each year. 

(b) The idea of concentrating attention on a single 
literary type, form, or species, is frankly abandoned. 

(c) No thought of a historical or philosophical arrange- 
ment is entertained, (d) The English teacher is to sac- 
rifice thoroughness to continuity of interest, (e) While 
obvious correlations with composition are not to be neg- 
lected, correlation is not to be considered as a leading aim. 
(/) Books offered for home reading are in general easier 
and lighter than those adopted for class study; they are 
drawn from various fields of interest and they include 
recent writers. It should be added that the number of 
books studied in class varies in different schools from 
four to twelve each year. 

First Year. — In class: A Ballad Book; Scott's 
"Ivanhoe," "Lady of the Lake"; Irving's "Sketch 
Book"; Homer's "Odyssey" in translation; Shake- 
speare's "Julius Caesar" or "Merchant of Venice." 
Outside reading with brief essays recorded in note- 
books: Burroughs, Warner, Stevenson's "Treasure 
Island"; Macaulay's "Lays"; Hawthorne's Short 
Stories; Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech (memorized). 

Second Year. — In class: George Eliot's "Silas Mar- 
ner "; Goldsmith's "Vicar"; Lowell's "Sir Launfal"; 
Tennyson's "Idylls"; Irving's "Life of Goldsmith"; 
Burns's Poems; Carlyle on Burns; Gray's "Elegy"; 
Shakespeare's "Midsummer-Night's Dream." Outside 
reading: Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress"; Browning's 



ENGLISH 243 

Narrative Poems; Holmes's "Last Leaf," "Chambered 
Nautilus" (memorized); Byron's "Prisoner of Chillon"; 
Stevenson's "Travels with a Donkey." 

Third Year. — In class: Shakespeare's "As You 
Like It"; Palgrave's "Golden Treasury, i, 2, 3, 4"; 
Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner"; Milton's "Minor 
Poems"; Macaulay on. Milton and Addison; "The 
DeCoverley Papers"; Blackmore's "Lorna Doone"; 
Emerson's Essays; Bacon's Essays. Outside reading: 
Dryden's "Odes," "Palamon and Arcite"; Pope's 
"Rape of the Lock"; Stockton's "Rudder Grange"; 
London's "Call of the Wild." 

Fourth Year. — In class: Shakespeare's "Macbeth"; 
Burke's Conciliation Speech; Washington, Webster, 
Lincoln; DeQuincey's "Joan" and "English Mail 
Coach"; Dickens's "Tale of Two Cities"; Thackeray's 
" Henry Esmond." Outside reading: Schurz on Lincoln; 
Churchill's "The Crisis"; Stevenson's " Virginibus Pue- 
risque"; Howells's "A Doorstep Acquaintance," Farces; 
Poems of Poe, Whitman, and Kipling. 



CHAPTER XII 
PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 

D WIGHT E. Watkins, A.M. 

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SPEAKING, KNOX COLLEGE 

The claims of public speaking and voice training to a 
place in the high school programme of studies are quite 
generally recognized, but, strange to say, very rarely satis- 
fied. This inconsistency is in large measure due to the 
tyranny of tradition and the crowded condition of our 
programmes of study, but its origin also lies in the in- 
ability of administrators to find satisfactory instructors. 
The shallow, volatile elocutionist, who betrays his calling 
by the way he says " Good morning," and whose mention 
always provokes an indulgent smile, has found little favor 
with those in charge of our public instruction. Fortu- 
nately this condition is being remedied by the more solid 
courses offered in public speaking by the special depart- 
ments of our leading universities and a few of the small 
colleges; and the time is not far distant when almost any 
high school can find a special teacher, abundantly quali- 
fied for the task, at the stipend of the regular faculty 
member. 

Value of Public Speaking and Voice Training as a 
High School Subject. — The value of the subject from a 
theoretical point of view is scarcely ever questioned. The 
arguments in its favor as a high school subject are: 

244 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 245 

(i) It is a very practical study. Almost every high 
school student will at some time find himself in a posi- 
tion where he will wish to address himself, in a more or 
less formal way, to his fellows. At such times a thorough 
training, even in the elements of public speech, will prove 
of inestimable value. He will at least be able to face 
his audience without distressing fear. He will be heard. 
He will not be so awkward as to jeopardize the success of 
his undertaking. His thoughts will progress in logical 
order and his emotions will neither be entirely suppressed 
nor yet allowed to run riot. To the boy or girl going 
directly into life, these accomplishments are almost a ne- 
cessity; and to the one going on to a higher institution, they 
will be of all the more value because acquired while young, 
for he can use them directly in improving the quality of 
his work in the higher institution, or, having these attain- 
ments already out of his way, can devote himself to other 
pursuits or can carry his attainments to a higher degree 
of perfection. 

(2) If excellence in the art is to be attained, it must be 
gained largely in the period of youth falling within the 
latter stages of adolescence, while the impulses to growth 
are strong and habits have not yet become set. 

(3) The subject must be studied before the profes- 
sional school is reached, for, with the increasing de- 
mands placed upon the curriculums of these institutions, 
it is evident that instruction in public speaking, like most 
of the instruction in English, must be relegated to the 
preparatory school; and this means that in many cases, 
where the student does not take the bachelor's degree 
before entering the professional school, the high school 
is the only possible place for acquiring his training. 
With the six-year course it is very evident that the high 



246 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

school must provide some means for practice in the art. 
That the student in the professional school needs ability 
in speaking scarcely needs argument. Although oratory 
in the courts is said to be declining, it is nevertheless true 
that there is as great need for clear reasoning and vivid 
imagination to-day as ever, and, outside of his routine 
practice, the lawyer who has the accomplishment of 
pleasing public address certainly has the advantage. 
Among the clergy, the mere fact that the average holder 
of a pulpit must address his parishioners twice each 
Sunday makes it plain that oratory still holds a place. 
In journalism, always inseparably connected with poli- 
tics, the public speaker has a wonderful prestige, while 
in medicine and dentistry the capable public speaker will 
always have the advantage accruing to a man who can 
appear to good advantage before gatherings of his fellows. 
In business the public speaker is becoming more and 
more of a necessity. In these days, when most of the 
larger business undertakings are in the hands of boards 
of directors, there must of compulsion be some one to 
present plans forcibly and clearly to these bodies of men. 
Social Value of Public Speaking. — The social value of 
public speaking is, of course, its highest. It tends di- 
rectly to make the student a more potent force in his en- 
vironment. The subjects lending themselves most easily 
to treatment are naturally those dealing with national, 
State, or municipal welfare, and familiarity with these 
themes cannot but inspire a patriotic feeling. Moreover, 
the young men who have once tasted the joys of pub- 
lic address will never be quite willing to give them up, 
and in any crisis, by reason of their familiarity with pub- 
lic affairs and ready ability in speaking, they will stand 
forth as staunch defenders of the best policies. The 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 247 

opportunity for teaching effective civics is nowhere better 
offered than in connection with the subject of public 
speaking. To teach that trickery and falsehood in a stu- 
dent's speech are most deplorable, and in the end unsuc- 
cessful, and to cultivate a keen appreciation of the oppro- 
brium fitly heaped upon such practices in political fields is 
certainly a great part of the work of the teacher of public 
speaking, and this ethical value alone would be enough 
to warrant extensive space in the curriculum. Again, by 
the constant appearance of the student before his mates, 
there springs a desire for a strong, erect, powerful physical 
appearance. Strong lungs and an oratorical presence 
come to have an important place in the student's ideals. 
Moreover, he desires to possess power, he seeks to con- 
trol, and thus becomes a more dominant personality. 

.-Esthetic Possibilities of Subject. — The aesthetic possi- 
bilities of the department are best developed in connec- 
tion with the study of literature. It is needless to say 
that oral interpretation can do fully as much as philo- 
logical research toward true taste in letters. It ought 
not to be possible for a class to spend half a semester 
upon "Macbeth" and not read a single line aloud, al- 
though this case, which came under the author's notice, 
only too clearly marks a tendency. The true test of a 
student's grasp of " Evangeline," as one writer has sug- 
gested, is "not whether he can give the exact date of the 
deportation of the Acadians, but whether his eyes grow 
moist at the death of Gabriel." 

The external beauties of poetic construction, it goes 
without saying, must be given oral rendition in order 
to be appreciated. Rhyme, rhythm, and melody mean 
nothing to the ear that is not trained to their delights. 
Likewise the depth of tone and color that goes with 



248 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

deep passion, the broken melody of ecstatic joy and tri- 
umph, the daintiness of manipulation that accompanies 
delicacy of conception — these evidences of true assimi- 
lation can only be secured through oral interpretation. 

Training of the Voice. — The training of the speaking 
voice is certainly greatly neglected in our high schools 
to-day. The voices of our young people are strangely 
irresponsive to emotion. Our training is too intellect- 
ual. Centuries of repression in the class room have 
rendered it a place almost unfit for the best study of 
literature. We have sought too long to eliminate emo- 
tion from our mental activities. The naked bones of 
logic must be clothed with the flesh and blood of feeling. 
In listening to a class engaged in reading poetry, one is 
peculiarly struck by the atrophy of the finer vocal attri- 
butes. These should be restored. In their use the stu- 
dent will build up a more attractive personality. To 
express kindness, reverence, and gladness means build- 
ing these emotions into the student's life, not only in- 
creasing his own enjoyment, but making him of more 
interest and service to his fellows. It is true that in 
securing this freedom of emotion the teacher must drive 
with a free rein, which does not lead to the perfect de- 
corum of the purely intellectual class room, but in the 
hands of an able teacher this freedom will be infinitely 
more productive of telling results. We are beginning to 
understand also that the training of the emotions is im- 
portant in determining conduct, and no better place can 
be found to do a large part of this work than in the in- 
terpretation of literary masterpieces. 

Training of the Will. — The discipline of the will is no 
small attainment to be gained from the practice given in 
the study of public speaking. The student soon learns 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 219 

that if he is to control his audience there must be an 
exhibition of his powers of determination. Earnestness 
must soon come to his rescue when he finds his school- 
mates getting the better of him as he stands on the 
platform. On no occasion must he discipline himself 
more rigidly. He must guard insistently against dis- 
tracting circumstances in his audience; he must keep 
his mind strictly upon his theme; he must, at the start, 
at least, take care about his enunciation, his bearing, 
his general attitude; and all these things, and many more, 
must be attended to while his pulses are beating at an 
unusually high rate, while his cheeks are flushed, and 
while his voice, to say nothing of his knees, trembles 
violently by reason of his elevation upon the platform. 
He must not fail! He must go through or meet dis- 
grace! Such opportunities for cultivating the will can 
scarcely be found elsewhere. 

Improvement in Instruction. — In some form public 
speaking has always been recognized in the school cur- 
riculum. The great mistake has been made in supposing 
that almost anybody could teach it. Friday afternoon 
speaking, exercises on special days, commencement pro- 
grammes, "rhetoricals," chapel services, and literary so- 
cieties have always, in varying degrees of success, catered 
to the demand for skill in the art of speaking. These 
public occasions still offer probably the best field for 
actual practice, but they are now being supplemented by 
systematic instruction in the class room, and by special 
expert training before each public appearance. As yet 
there are few, if any, text-books suitable to put into the 
hands of high school students, but there are plenty of 
excellent manuals from which the teacher can glean valu- 
able systems and helpful material. 



250 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Occasions for Public Speaking. — Devices for supplying 
occasions for the public use of speech have always played 
an important part in instruction in public speaking, 
this obviously for the reason that there are few real op- 
portunities for the high school student to appear pub- 
licly. The debate, either between schools, or classes, 
or factions in the same school, probably ranks first. 
This is true, doubtless, because the debate, of all 
rhetorical forms, is the least removed from life condi- 
tions. "It seems the most useful because the most 
used form of speech." It cultivates, too, the ability to 
think and speak upon the spur of the moment, which 
makes for naturalness, in opposition to the fixed and 
careful artificiality too apt to creep into other forms. 
Debates were formerly carried on with one team from 
each school or faction. To-day, however, the tendency 
is to develop two teams, one upholding the affirmative 
side, and one the negative. These meet in simultane- 
ous debates. This method avoids all unfairness in the 
balance of the question, for each school or faction has 
one team representing each side, and if victory is latent 
in the statement of the question each side will be ac- 
corded a victory. This method also obviates the rather 
undesirable transportation of large delegations of stu- 
dents from one school to another, for each school has 
enough to do in supporting its own team at home. It 
also doubles the effectiveness of the work, for there are 
in this case six debaters interested, whereas under the 
old system there were but three. It facilitates, too, work 
upon both sides of the question, which was always hard 
to obtain under the old system. 

A modification of the dual debate is found in what is 
known as the triangular system, in which three schools 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 251 

participate, one year all the affirmatives visiting, and the 
next year all the negatives. Thus each school debates 
two others, and may, as a result, win both debates, win 
one and lose one, or lose both. This triangular method 
has in one case, at least, been expanded to include nine 
schools, making a triple triangle and enabling the cham- 
pionship to be decided practically, although not absolutely, 
in two debates, the second debate involving no change of 
sides or further preparation, often a troublesome feature 
in the larger leagues under the old system. Pentangular 
leagues have also been organized. 

Next to the debate, as a practical device, comes the 
oratorical contest, in which each contestant writes a 
speech, submitting it to judgment on thought and com- 
position, and afterward delivers it, being judged with the 
others upon the effectiveness of delivery, the two sets of 
marks being collated in order to determine the winner. 
This has the advantage of the debate in that it tends 
to more care in the purely rhetorical characteristics of 
speech; grammar, punctuation, diction, rhetoric, are all 
rendered much better by this sort of a contest. There 
has been a feeling that under this system the most effec- 
tive speaker often loses, and that it is impossible to accu- 
rately judge a speech in the manuscript without the per- 
sonality behind it, but it is probable that whatever is lost 
in accuracy in this regard is gained in the work expended 
by the contestants upon the manuscripts, which would 
be of a much more careless nature were thought, com- 
position, and delivery all judged at the time of delivery. 

Another device, more closely connected with litera- 
ture, but nearly always under the direction of the teacher 
of public speaking, is the dramatic club. The control 
of this organization requires a high degree of diplomacy 



252 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

upon the part of the teacher, who must guide and inspire 
to the highest in dramatic literature in the face of much 
mediocre work upon the commercial stage. The power 
of the dramatic instinct, however, is one not to be de- 
spised, and when carefully supervised can be made sub- 
servient to great achievement. It is doubful sometimes 
whether the strain of carrying a part in a three or four 
act play is a desirable thing. It is certain that there are 
numerous nervous breakdowns and failures in scholar- 
ship brought about by dramatic presentations. A rem- 
edy, perhaps, lies in taking only a scene or two from the 
plays studied by the club, or in presenting one-act plays 
not lasting over a half-hour. This plan by no means 
prevents the entertainment offered by the dramatic club 
from lasting a full evening; for two or three scenes, or 
short plays, may be presented the same evening by dif- 
ferent groups of students. 

In all the work there is a tendency to get away from 
exhibition merely to something more sane and of a 
higher order. Mere imitation, or the representative side 
of the art, is losing ground. The struggle now is for 
the manifestive. Delsartian curves, like Spencerian flour- 
ishes, have largely disappeared. To-day we tend toward 
the direct and business-like, eliminating anything which 
might attract attention to the medium of expression. 

Status of Instruction in Public Speaking. — There are 
at present no statistics as to the exact status of instruc- 
tion in public speaking in high schools. Not more than 
three years ago the author secured some data by rather 
wide correspondence, but no definite conclusions could 
be drawn except that there was a very chaotic condi- 
tion of affairs throughout the country. The require- 
ments differed from entirely compulsory to entirely elec- 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 253 

tive regulations, and from one recitation a week for four 
years to a recitation every day for a semester. In reality 
there was probably no such discrepancy in the actual 
work done, as much of the instruction might be given 
outside of the regular curriculum through the devices 
mentioned above. The employment of a special teacher 
would prove no guide, for often some teacher of Eng- 
lish would be doing the work although no mention were 
made of it. Developments will, no doubt, lead to the 
employing of a special teacher to look after the public- 
speaking activities of the students and to give systematic 
instruction in the subject. On the more aesthetic side 
the larger schools may supplement the work of the reg- 
ular teacher of literature by the work of a teacher spe- 
cially trained in oral interpretation. It is certain that 
more respect is being paid year by year both to foren- 
sics and interpretation. 

At the 1910 meeting of the Illinois Association of 
Teachers of English, a committee, 1 appointed by the 
association, investigated the entire subject of oral Eng- 
lish in the high schools of Illinois, and reported the fol- 
lowing resolutions, which were taken up one by one and 
adopted : 

/. Every Illinois high school should make some pro- 
vision for training its pupils in the proper use of the 
English language. 

II. It is highly desirable that all high school teachers, 
of whatsoever subjects, should lay especial emphasis upon 
clearness and correctness in reading and reciting. 

'This committee consisted of Professor Thomas H. Briggs, of the 
Eastern Illinois State Normal School; Professor John M. Clapp, of Lake 
Forest College; Principal W. F. Mozier, of the Ottawa High School; 
Principal F. D. Thompson, of the SpringGeld High School; Professor 
E. M. Halliday, of the University of Illinois. 



254 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

///. At least one-fifth of the high school work in Eng- 
lish should be devoted to oral composition and reading 
aloud, with particular reference to the correction of faults 
in articulation, pronunciation, and voice quality. 

IV. It is desirable that teachers of English should 
themselves be fitted to give instruction in oral English, 
though there is no serious disadvantage in leaving such 
work to a special teacher, provided that it be closely corre- 
lated to the work in written composition and literature. 

V. It is recommended that in all institutions fitting 
teachers to give instruction in high school English courses 
in reading and speaking be required as a prerequisite to 
endorsement for positions. 

VI. This association is in hearty sympathy with other 
public-speaking activities within the school, such as de- 
bates, declamation and oratorical contests, dramatic per- 
formances, literary society work, etc., provided always 
that they be under the supervision of teachers and that 
they be conducted sanely and without artificiality or af- 
fectation. 

VII. It is believed that inter-high school contests, in- 
cluding debates and oratorical and declamation contests, 
present grave dangers, 1 but that, if carefully superintended 
and strictly limited in number, they may be found to an- 
swer the double purpose of affording training in public 

1 As throwing special light upon this clause, the fact should be men- 
tioned that the committee sent out to all the high school principals in 
the State the following question: "Has your experience with inter- 
high school debating been such as to lead you to favor it?" Ninety- 
four principals replied. Of these, forty-six answered "Yes"; twenty- 
seven reported no experience; five expressed themselves as in doubt; 
and nine answered "No." "It will thus be seen," says a member of 
the committee, "that high school principals, in so far as they have ex- 
pressed any opinion, are decided'y in favor of debates between high 
schools." 



PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 255 

speaking and lightening the over-emphasis likely to be 
placed upon athletic contests. 

Preparation of the Teacher. — The preparation of the 
teacher is a very important factor in determining the 
value of work in public speaking. Nothing less than a 
college course should be demanded in the way of gen- 
eral education. In addition the teacher should have 
specialized in the work offered by the public-speaking 
department in his college or university. He might very 
well, although it is not necessary, have taken, in addi- 
tion, some special training in one of the dozen special 
schools of oratory, so-called, located in various large 
cities. The pre-eminent requisites of personality for the 
teacher are, first, a vivid imagination, then a kind and 
helpful disposition; and to these must be added an 
unusual capacity for work. It is to be hoped that this 
last requirement will soon be unnecessary, but at pres- 
ent it is absolutely essential. The tendency of adminis- 
trators is to demand class instruction during the regular 
hours of the session and then drill for public appear- 
ances after hours — drill on orations and discussions for 
chapel exercises immediately after school, and work with 
the contestants and with the dramatic club in the even- 
ing. It is either a wonderfully strong teacher of ex- 
pression, or else a worthless one, who can close the year 
without severe nervous exhaustion. With the further de- 
velopment of the subject in the high school curriculum, 
doubtless these tendencies will disappear, but they are 
a serious fault in the present system. 

The Future of Public Speaking. — Public speaking will 
always hold a prominent place in the work of the high 
school, and this in an increasing degree. Much of the 
work in the subject will be done through the activities 



256 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

lying outside of the class room, but this does not mean 
that it will not be under careful system and supervision. 
Text-books for class instruction will undoubtedly ap- 
pear, and with them will come more rigid and uniform 
requirements and a general improvement in the instruc- 
tion. 



CHAPTER XIII 
LATIN 

Arthur Tappan Walker, Ph.D. 
head of latin department, university of kansas 

In the general questioning of the value of secondary 
subjects, Latin has perhaps received more than its fair 
share of criticism. If so, the too great vigor of attack 
has been chiefly a reaction against the too great claims 
that used to be made for the study — claims which were a 
natural heritage from the time when Latin was not 
merely the chief educational instrument, but a necessary 
means of communication between scholars. A more rea- 
sonable ground for a part of the criticism has been the 
failure of the friends of Latin to agree upon the pur- 
poses of the study. Nevertheless, in spite of criticism 
from without and disagreement within, the study of 
Latin has increased wonderfully in the last twenty years. 
The latest statistics of the United States Commissioner of 
Education are given in the report of 1910, p. 1141, and 
cover the years from 1890 to 1910, inclusive. Of the 
total number of pupils in both public and private high 
schools and academies, 33.62 per cent were studying 
Latin in 1889-90; the percentage of Latin students in- 
creased steadily till it reached 50.29 in 1898-9, a more 
rapid increase than was shown by any other subject dur- 
ing those years; since then the percentage has remained 
almost stationary, and was 49.59 in 1909-10. Only 

257 



258 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

English, mathematics, and history are being studied by 
a greater number of secondary pupils. The total number 
of secondary pupils studying Latin is now considerably 
more than half a million. 



Aims of Latin Study. — The aims of Latin study need 
a careful consideration, not primarily for the purpose 
of justifying its pursuit by this vast number of pu- 
pils, but because the teacher's choice of methods and 
of text-books must be governed by his aims. Unfortu- 
nately Latin teachers do not always agree in the state- 
ment of their aims, perhaps do not always formulate 
them to themselves. But fortunately the disagreement 
is less serious than it sometimes seems, for all agree that 
Latin serves several valuable ends, and the disagreement 
is as to which is the most valuable and most to be em- 
phasized in teaching. If agreement on this point is im- 
possible, it is at any rate all-important that each teacher 
shall decide for himself what his own aims shall be, and 
that he shall adapt his methods to the furtherance of 
those aims. 

The Ability to Read Latin not the Chief Aim.— The 
most obvious aim of Latin study is the ability to read 
Latin. While it would be absurd to deny that this is 
and must be a practical goal in all Latin teaching, it 
cannot be maintained that it is the chief goal, except 
perhaps for teachers in strictly preparatory schools, the 
majority of whose pupils are to take examinations for en- 
trance to college. Comparatively few of the more than 
half million now studying Latin are intending to enter 
college, still fewer intend to elect Latin in college. For 



LATIN 259 

the great majority the statement is grievously defective. 
On the theoretical side it merely removes the difficulty 
one step; for the value of the goal itself is not necessarily 
apparent. The ability to read Latin is worth something; 
but is one warranted in spending years in the endeavor to 
acquire it? And on the practical side there is the im- 
mense difficulty that the pupil does not and cannot learn 
to read Latin with any such measure of success as he 
can attain in the study of a modern language. This 
unmodified statement, that the aim of Latin teaching 
must be to teach the art of reading Latin, is the basis of 
much of the dissatisfaction with the results of classical 
study. For the natural inference is that, since Latin is 
studied for the purpose of reading it, and since the pupils 
do not learn to read it, either the study of Latin should 
be given up altogether, or its literature should be studied 
in translation, or some radical change in the method of 
teaching it should be adopted. 

Disciplinary Value. — The chief purpose of the Latin 
teacher must be to inculcate habits of accurate thinking. 
This may not be the most important reason for including 
Latin in the curriculum, since other subjects, too, give 
discipline; but it is the first point to consider when one is 
deciding between rival methods or rival books. This state- 
ment assumes, of course, that no one longer holds to the 
too hasty generalization that the results of formal disci- 
pline cannot be transferred from one study to another or 
the affairs of every-day life; though it is admitted that 
to no one knows just the conditions for such transference. 
Assuming, then, the possibility of training the mental 
powers, the Latinist claims, not indeed that Latin affords 
the only means of mental training, nor that the study 
of Latin by itself gives a complete and well-rounded train- 



260 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ing, but that it does afford the most satisfactory training 
in a certain kind of reasoning for pupils of the second- 
ary school age. Every sentence requires the exercise of 
keen observation, not only in the apparently simple 
matter of word forms and inflection endings, but in the 
more subtle and complicated indications of sentence 
meaning afforded by word order and by other means. 
Every sentence requires a series of correct inferences as 
to the relations indicated by the endings and the order. 
Every sentence requires, too, that the results of the 
pupil's reasoning shall be at once expressed in the best 
English at his command. These three processes — accu- 
rate observation, the drawing of correct inferences from 
the facts observed, the expression of the results, are es- 
sential processes in mental training. Both theoretical 
ear ^derations and the experience of the past show that 
for these processes Latin furnishes material eminently 
suited to pupils of the secondary school age. 

Value for the Pupil's English. — A second great aim of 
Latin teaching must be a better understanding of the Eng- 
lish language and a training in its use. The great concern 
for the improvement of the pupil's English, manifested 
alike by school authorities and by the general public, has 
caused a very great expansion in the number of English 
teachers and in the time devoted to the study. Yet there 
seems to be no decrease in the dissatisfaction with the Eng- 
lish used by graduates of our secondary schools. It seems 
not impossible that the great emphasis laid upon the work 
of the English department has worked harm, indirectly, 
by leading to a division of labor and to a shirking of 
responsibility by other departments. Perhaps the true 
solution of the difficulty will be found in some method 
of making all departments share the responsibility for 






LATIN 261 

the English teaching. The department of Latin, more 
than any other, has the opportunity of co-operating with 
the English department. Latin, in fact, can perform a 
part of the task better than the English department itself. 
The study benefits the pupil's English fth by enabling 
him to understand better its vocaL and sentence 

structure and by requiring of him constant practice in 
English expression. 

Probably no one can state with any accuracy the pro- 
portion of English words which are derived, directly or 
indirectly, from the Latin. It has been estimated at 
sixty per cent. Even this does not do full justice to the 
help given by Latin; for the words derived from Anglo 
Saxon are the common words, those which are already 
familiar to the pupil, while those derived from the Latin 
are the longer, less familiar, more technical words. It is 
true that most of these words have undergone modifica- 
tions of meaning in their passage from Latin to English; 
but the key to their history and meaning is found in the 
Latin. It is clear, then, that the Latin teacher should 
seek to clarify the pupil's ideas of word-meaning by em- 
phasizing word-derivation. 

Less obvious, but very real, is the effect of studying 
the grammar and the structure of the Latin sentence. 
It is true that English sentence structure is very slightly 
affected by that of Latin, so that the study of the one does 
not directly explain the other. But it may be doubted 
whether any pupil ever yet gained an understanding of 
the English grammatical system until the study of a 
foreign language forced him to think about grammar 
and to notice the differences between the foreign and 
the English systems. Modern languages are too similar 
to English in their grammatical systems to be of great 



262 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

value in this respect. The Latin teacher has opportu- 
nities denied to the English teacher, and he fails in his 
duty if in teaching Latin grammar he does not teach 
English grammar also. 

Still more important is the training in English expres- 
sion which is afforded by the necessity of constant trans- 
lation into English. Here is no mere opportunity of the 
Latin teacher, which he may embrace or not, as he likes; 
whether for good or for evil he does inevitably teach 
English of some sort. No school authority has the moral 
right to employ a Latin teacher who is either unable or 
unwilling to teach English well. The opportunity of 
the Latin teacher is even greater than that of the English 
teacher, in some respects: the amount of English com- 
position which the pupil must prepare in translation is 
greater than the amount ordinarily required in the English 
class; the ideas which he has to express in English are 
more elevated than those which will come to his unaided 
mind, and are presented to him in wellnigh perfect 
form; he cannot shirk the expression of any idea which 
seems difficult to him, as he can in original composition; 
since there can be no question of what he is trying to say, 
the teacher can hold him more easily to a careful weighing 
of English synonyms and to a recasting of his sentences 
to bring out shades of meaning and of emphasis. Occa- 
sional exercises in written translation are most helpful in 
emphasizing the importance of care in translation. It 
should be possible to make an arrangement with the 
English department by which such exercises may be 
accepted and criticised by the English teachers, now and 
then, in place of the written work which they regularly 
require of their classes. Such an arrangement will ob- 
viate the objection of lack of time for written transla- 




LATIN 263 

tions, and will ensure harmony and co-operation in the 
English teaching of the two departments. 

Literary and Historical Values. — A third group of 
values has to do with the contents of the books read, 
chiefly on the historical and the literary sides. The 
student gains a detailed knowledge of certain historical 
events, both interesting in themselves and important 
because of the frequent references to them in English 
literature. And he inevitably becomes familiar with a 
small fraction of the world's great literature. The value 
of a first-hand knowledge of Latin literature is out of 
all proportion to the bulk of that literature; for English 
literature is permeated by Latin literature to a degree 
which none but a classical student can appreciate. 

But if this knowledge of a few facts and this acquaint- 
ance with a few bits of literature comprised the whole 
historical and literary value of the study of Latin, it 
would have to be confessed that these ends could be 
attained better by the study of translations. In fact, 
just as in the case of the values already discussed, here 
too the process of learning is the important thing. The 
pupil does not merely learn some historical facts; he 
learns them by the best possible method, by original in- 
vestigation from the sources. A wise teacher may lead 
him to see that he is getting beneath the surface of the 
ordinary text-book of history and may give him an 
impetus toward a juster conception of history than the 
conning of facts from a book. And for the genuine ap- 
preciation of literature in general, the habit of careful 
analysis and close study of the thought and form of ex- 
pression is far more important than the amount of Latin 
literature which will be remembered. Such careful study 
is forced upon the Latin student by the difficulties of the 




264 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

language, but it is hard to secure in the English class 
because the language seems to offer no difficulty to the 
English-speaking pupil. 

The comparative importance of this literary and his- 
torical value needs the most careful consideration; for 
the teacher's whole choice of books and of methods 
will be influenced chiefly by his opinion on this point. 
If he underemphasizes it, he may be accused of teaching 
only the dry bones of his subject; if he overemphasizes 
it, he will defeat his own purpose by failing to give his 
pupils the firm grasp of the language itself which is 
essential for a real appreciation of the literature. There 
is little danger of giving this aspect of the work too much 
emphasis in college, or perhaps in the teaching of Vergil; 
but in much of the recent literature on the teaching of 
Latin there appears to be a tendency to carry this em- 
phasis too far back in the course. For the first two or 
three years this value is much less important than those 
already discussed. During those years the amount of 
Latin which can be read is so small at the best that it 
would be idle to hope for much literary or historical value 
from it. At the same time the difficulties of the language 
are so great that it is unwise to devote any large propor- 
tion of the time to anything else. Every pupil can profit 
by the discipline and by the training in English which 
the study of Latin gives, but not every pupil can profit 
by its purely cultural value, nor ought every pupil to be 
expected to do so; a subject taught so generally ought to 
be taught with chief reference to its value to the many, not 
the few. Moreover, the historical and literary value re- 
quires maturity for any considerable realization by pupils. 

But, though made subordinate, this purely cultural side 
of Latin study should not be neglected wholly. No one 




LATIN 265 

can say in advance which pupils can and which cannot 
profit by it. Every pupil has the right to see that there 
is something higher in the study of Latin than mere lan- 
guage study. Those who are fitted to profit by it must 
be given an opportunity to find and to show their apti- 
tude. The essential foundation for securing this higher 
value of Latin study is an intelligent comprehension of 
the contents of the books read. It is unjustifiable to 
allow pupils to feel that they are translating discon- 
nected bits of Caesar and Cicero. A few minutes of every 
recitation should be given to making sure that the pupils 
are following intelligently the narrative or the speech 
as a whole. How much more should be done depends 
partly on the class, partly on how well the teacher himself 
understands the campaigns of Caesar, the rhetoric of 
Cicero, the motives and workmanship of Vergil. But 
the pleasure of seeing a bright class enjoy this aspect 
of the study should never beguile the teacher into for- 
getting that it must be subordinate to thorough lin- 
guistic work. 

Ability to Read Latin Versus the Three Greater Values. — 
To return now, briefly, to the definition of the goal of 
Latin teaching as the ability to read Latin, it is clear, of 
course, that the practical aim must be to teach the pupil 
to read Latin, just as the practical aim of the foot-ball 
coach must be to teach his pupils to carry the ball over 
the goal line. But foot-ball is not retained as a college 
sport merely that a ball may be carried over a goal line; 
nor is Latin retained in the curriculum merely that pupils 
may learn to read Latin. If foot-ball is to remain a 
college sport, the coach must, it is true, teach his pupils 
to carry the ball; but all his tactics must be chosen with 
reference to the cultivation of courage, fair play, sports- 






266 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

manship, whatever other good qualities are claimed for 
foot-ball. If Latin is to remain in the curriculum, the 
teacher must, it is true, teach the pupil to read Latin; 
but all his methods must be chosen with reference to the 
higher aims of inculcating right habits of thinking, of 
improving the pupil's English, and of cultivating his 
appreciation of literature. 

II 

The Course of Study. — In the great majority of schools 
the four year Latin course consists of: (i) A beginner's 
book; (2) books I to IV, inclusive, of Caesar's Gallic 
War, with one exercise a week in composition; (3) six 
orations of Cicero, with one exercise a week in compo- 
sition; (4) books I to VI, inclusive, of Vergil's yEneid, 
with or without composition. Until recently the very 
few universities which admit solely on examination have 
insisted upon slight individual variations from this tradi- 
tional course. Now, however, the Commission on Col- 
lege Entrance Requirements, appointed by the American 
Philological Association in December, 1908, seems to 
have accomplished its chief purpose, of formulating a 
statement of entrance requirements which could be 
accepted by all institutions, whether they admit students 
on examination or by certificate. The report of that 
commission does not require specifically the course as 
outlined above; yet the general adoption of the report 
is making it possible to say for the first time that that 
course, properly taught, either does now or will soon 
prepare pupils to meet the Latin requirements of any 
college or university. Whether it is wise to choose just 
those authors, and always the same parts of them, and 



LATIN 267 

especially whether this course best meets the needs of 
pupils who will never read Latin in college, are perhaps 
debatable questions. 

Report of the Commission of Fifteen. — Though some 
provisions of the commission's report can be positive re- 
quirements only for those institutions which admit solely 
on examination, they can be adopted as recommendations 
by those which admit on certificate. That the report is 
acceptable to the latter is shown by its adoption, in 191 1, 
by the North Central Association of Schools and Col- 
leges. The essential part of the report is as follows: 

"i. AMOUNT AND RANGE OF THE READING REQUIRED 

"1. The Latin reading required of candidates for 
admission to college, without regard to the prescription 
of particular authors and works, shall be not less in 
amount than Caesar, Gallic War, I-IV; Cicero, the ora- 
tions against Catiline, for the Manilian Law, and for 
Archias; Vergil, yEneid, I-VL 

"2. The amount of reading specified above shall be 
selected by the schools from the following authors and 
works: Caesar (Gallic War and Civil War) and Nepos 
(Lives) ; Cicero (orations, letters, and De Senectute) and 
Sallust (Catiline and Jugurthine War) ; Vergil (Bucolics, 
Georgics, and ^Eneid) and Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti, 
and Tristia). 

"II. SUBJECTS AND SCOPE OF THE EXAMINATIONS 

"1, Translation at Sight. — Candidates will be exam- 
ined in translation at sight of both prose and verse. The 
vocabulary, constructions, and range of ideas of the 



268 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

passages set will be suited to the preparation secured by 
the reading indicated above. 

" 2. Prescribed Reading. — Candidates will be examined 
also upon the following prescribed reading: Cicero, ora- 
tions for the Manilian Law and for Archias, and Vergil, 
^Eneid, I, II, and either IV or VI at the option of the 
candidate, with questions on subject-matter, literary and 
historical allusions, and prosody. Every paper in which 
passages from the prescribed reading are set for transla- 
tion will contain also one or more passages for translation 
at sight; and candidates must deal satisfactorily with 
both these parts of the paper, or they will not be given 
credit for either part. 

"3. Grammar and Composition. — The examinations 
in grammar and composition will demand thorough 
knowledge of all regular inflections, all common irregular 
forms, and the ordinary syntax and vocabulary of the 
prose authors read in school, with ability to use this 
knowledge in writing simple Latin prose. The words, 
constructions, and range of ideas called for in the exami- 
nations in composition will be such as are common in 
the reading of the year, or years, covered by the particu- 
lar examination." 

It will be seen that, in addition to its chief purpose of 
securing uniformity of requirements, the commission de- 
sired two things: (1) To emphasize the importance of 
sight tests; (2) to give the teacher a reasonable freedom 
of choice in selecting his reading material. 

Translation at Sight. — There is, of course, no especial 
virtue in a sight test, regarded merely as a test. In 
emphasizing the importance of such tests the commission 
meant to urge that teachers should teach consciously for 
the power to read Latin. Yet it did not mean to recom- 



LATIN 269 

mend any revolution in the methods of teaching. A 
pupil who has thoroughly mastered a limited but well- 
chosen vocabulary, the inflections, and the important prin- 
ciples of syntax, and who has learned how to attack a 
Latin sentence, will be able to pass such a sight test as 
is intended; and, conversely, sight translation is an ex- 
cellent test of the pupil's command of these essentials. 
Moreover, if both teacher and pupil know that a part of 
the coming test will be the ability to translate, without 
help of any kind, a passage of Latin which the pupil has 
never before seen, their attitude toward vocabulary, in- 
flections, and syntax will be very different from that 
which they will have if the decisive test is to be on the 
pupil's ability to remember the translation of passages 
previously read. Therefore, the teacher should let it be 
known that he will include such passages in every exami- 
nation which he sets. But he should bear in mind three 
points: First, that the ability to read Latin is not in 
itself the real goal of secondary Latin study; second, 
that a certain natural facility will often enable a super- 
ficial pupil to surpass, in this test, one of more solid at- 
tainments; and third, that the test will not be fair unless 
the teacher makes sure that the words and constructions 
found in it are all among those which the pupil ought 
to know. The teacher's unaided memory cannot be 
trusted for this purpose. The words and constructions 
may be looked up for this purpose most easily in Lodge's 
"Vocabulary of High School Latin" and Byrne's "Syn- 
tax of High School Latin." 

Choice of Reading Material. — As to the other subsidi- 
ary purpose of the commission, that of securing freedom 
in the choice of reading material, there is room for wide 
differences of opinion. Few would deny that well trained 



270 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and widely read teachers ought to be allowed to choose 
freely within reasonable limits. But the report will do 
actual harm if any teacher, understanding it as a recom- 
mendation, abandons the traditional course of reading 
without full consideration and adequate reason. Caesar, 
Cicero, and Vergil were never imposed upon the schools 
by outside authority; they are the authors on whom the 
teaching profession, by long experience, has settled as 
being most suitable for the conditions of our American 
schools. The worst charge that can be made justly 
against them is that of monotony. We hear that it is 
monotonous both to read the same things over and over, 
year after year, and to continue reading one author 
throughout a year. But to the pupils of each succeeding 
class the books are new and fresh; the course is not ar- 
ranged for the amusement or the instruction of the teach- 
er; the supposed monotony of reading a single author 
throughout a year is at least partially balanced by the 
increasing ease of the Latin and the pupil's increasing 
sense of power as he becomes more and more familiar with 
the author's vocabulary, constructions, and style. More- 
over, much of this supposed monotony will disappear if 
more attention is paid to the contents of the books. Those 
who find Caesar, for example, least interesting are apt to 
be those who know least about him. An apparently 
weightier objection to Caesar and to the orations of Cicero 
is that their subject-matter is not vitally significant for the 
pupil or for modern civilization. There is a modicum of 
truth in the statement; but to make it a serious objection 
to the use of Caesar and Cicero in the second and third 
years involves two false assumptions : first, that the object 
of Latin study in those two years is to learn the contents 
of the authors read; second, that there are other more sig- 



LATIN 271 

nificant authors whose works are equally suited in other 
respects to the reading of those years. The subject 
matter of both is important, serious, dignified, and clearly 
presented; the Latinity of each is wellnigh perfection; 
the style of each is perfectly adapted to his subject- 
matter. 

But the foregoing is intended to advise conservatism, 
not inflexibility. Caesar is probably better suited to the 
work of the second year than any other author or com- 
bination of authors; yet, if the work of the first year has 
not prepared the class to read Caesar, it may be well to 
add to the preparation by having it read a little easy 
Latin such as Fabulce Faciles. Parts of the last three 
books are more interesting than parts of the first four, 
and may well be substituted for them. The latter half 
of the first book, in particular, may well be replaced by 
either half of the fifth. The Civil War is less suitable, 
because it is more difficult in both language and story. 
It is a pity that a class should gain no more intimate 
insight into Cicero's own character and into the life of 
his times than it can get from his speeches; therefore, it 
may be well to substitute some of his letters for one or 
two of the speeches. Yet the letters are generally more 
difficult in both language and contents, and the amount 
that can be read is too small to make much impression. 
The third and fifth books of the ^Eneid can be omitted 
without very serious loss; but it may be questioned 
whether Ovid is worth substituting for them, though he 
is interesting and somewhat easier than Vergil. The 
misfortune of the Vergil year is not that too much Ver- 
gil is read, but that the whole cannot be read. Judicious 
selections from the last six books may serve to give a fair 
idea of Vergil's purpose as a whole, and seem superior 



272 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to Ovid as a substitute for the third and fifth books, if 
any change is desired. 

Latin Composition. — The commission made no definite 
requirement as to the amount of composition; but it did 
recommend, in a part of the report not quoted above, that 
there be systematic and regular work in composition dur- 
ing the time in which poetry is read, as well as while prose 
is read. The equivalent of one period a week is usually 
allotted to this part of the work, and is little enough. 
As pupils commonly dislike composition, it sometimes 
appears to school authorities that both time and trouble 
could be saved by omitting composition altogether or by 
curtailing its amount. Possibly if one considered only 
the amount of Latin to be read, and cared nothing for 
the pupil's development or for his knowledge of Latin, 
some time might be saved. Probably, however, even on 
this basis of judgment it could be shown that the accuracy 
of knowledge attained through composition so facilitates 
the pupil's reading that time is saved rather than wasted. 
However that may be, no one who estimates the value of 
Latin study in accordance with the principles maintained 
earlier in this chapter will doubt that time is actually 
saved by composition. That is to say, if one could set 
up a certain definite attainable standard of the results to 
be expected from the study of Latin — so much discipline, 
so much improvement in English, so much literary appre- 
ciation, so much ability to read Latin — it is certain that 
that standard would be reached more quickly and more 
certainly by giving a part of the time to composition than 
by devoting it all to reading. For the aim of Latin com- 
position is not something distinct and different from the 
aim of translation. No one wishes the secondary pupil 
to learn to write Latin as an end in itself. Composition 



LATIN 273 

is to be taught as an indispensable supplement to trans- 
lation in achieving the general purposes of Latin study. 
All of these purposes call for thorough study and accurate 
knowledge. Inaccurate knowledge, combined with notes 
and a sense of the general meaning, may enable a pupil 
to translate a good many Latin sentences; but it leaves 
him helpless in the face of any difficulty. Composition 
tests, as nothing else does, the accuracy of the pupil's 
knowledge of words, forms, and constructions; it gives 
him an incentive to learn these things accurately; it helps 
him to fix them in memory; it is the most potent influence 
in forcing him to notice and reflect upon the exact mean- 
ing of English words and idioms and sentences. If the 
pupil dislikes the work, it is chiefly because his knowledge 
is so inaccurate that he can be sure of nothing without 
looking it up; for pupils like what they can do well and 
accurately. The true remedy is more accurate teaching 
and more, rather than less, composition. 

Formal Grammar Study. — Perhaps the most unfortu- 
nate tendency in the Latin teaching of the last twenty 
or thirty years has been the minimizing of formal gram- 
mar study. This has resulted in part from the mistaken 
belief that the literary and historical value is of chief 
importance in secondary Latin teaching, in part from a 
desire to render the subject easier. But a thorough and 
systematic knowledge of the grammar can be defended 
both for its own sake, as a mental discipline, and as a 
basis for the better understanding of the grammar of 
English and other modern languages, and as an indis- 
pensable tool for ascertaining with exactness the meaning 
of the Latin which is read. 

The failure of pupils to grasp firmly the principles of 
Latin grammar is due in part to the general abandon- 



274 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ment of the former practice of studying the grammar 
straight through in daily assignments. It is due also, and 
perhaps still more, to the character of the beginner's 
books and the composition books which are in general 
use. For some years the majority of these books have 
presented the grammatical material in almost every 
possible order except the systematic arrangement of the 
grammar. Space will not permit a full discussion of the 
reasons alleged for this lack of systematic arrangement. 
It is admitted, of course, that some deviations from the 
system of the grammars are necessary. But the teacher 
is strongly advised to select both a beginner's book and 
a manual of composition that present the grammati- 
cal material systematically — that is, as far as possible, 
with all the declensions together, all the conjugations 
together, all the uses of each case together, all the uses 
of the tenses together, etc. Such a systematic arrange- 
ment makes the details easier to learn, to review, and to 
retain; it gives the pupil a chance to feel that he is defi- 
nitely completing one subject after another and pro- 
gressing toward the completion of a definite task, instead 
of learning a miscellany of disconnected facts from a 
seemingly endless confusion; it will in time let him feel 
that Latin grammar is a complete and well-organized 
whole. 

Ill 

The Training of the Teacher. — Both the many-sided- 
ness of Latin study and the length of time during which 
the pupil comes under the influence of the Latin teacher 
make it fair to demand that the teacher shall have an 
especially wide and thorough training. Latin is one of 
the subjects which should never be taught by a teacher 



LATIN 275 

who has had less than a full college course; for with less 
training than that the teacher must have either an insuf- 
ficient knowledge of Latin or a narrowness of prepara- 
tion which will not allow him to see the relations of Latin 
study to other subjects. 

The Minimum Preparation. — The absolutely essential 
preparation of a Latin teacher consists of (i) an exact 
knowledge of the language itself — its forms, its vocabu- 
lary, its syntax, its sentence structure. Several college 
reading courses and one or two college composition 
courses are needed to give this knowledge. (2) A feel- 
ing for the best English usage, an ability to use good 
English, and an acquaintance with some of the best Eng- 
lish literature. (3) Some acquaintance with the ancient 
world and with the conditions under which Caesar, Cicero, 
and Vergil wrote. A good college course in ancient his- 
tory, one in the history of Roman literature, and one 
in the private life of the Romans should be regarded as 
essential. If a course in Cicero's letters can be included 
among the reading courses, it will help materially in 
meeting this requirement. 

The Adequate Preparation. — But the preparation just 
outlined represents only the barest equipment with 
which it is possible to do respectable work. No teacher 
with only that preparation can give his pupils all they 
ought to get from Latin. The fully equipped second- 
ary teacher of Latin must have penetrated more deeply 
into the spirit of ancient civilization, by further study 
of ancient literature, history, and archaeology. He must 
have pursued each of the branches of classical study 
at least so far that he can find and use all the evidence 
on any question that may arise in his teaching. That 
is, while he need not have added to the sum of hu- 



276 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

man knowledge by original investigation in any branch 
of classical study, yet he must know how to find out 
what others have done, and must be capable of an in- 
dependent judgment on it. This means, above all else, 
a knowledge of Greek, without which the teacher of 
Latin is even more helpless than the teacher of Eng- 
lish is without Latin. It means a reading knowledge of 
French and German, in which much of the best classical 
work has been written. It does not necessarily mean 
the investigation work required for the degree of doctor 
of philosophy; but it does mean at least two years of 
graduate work in Latin and Greek with courses in the 
literatures, in comparative grammar, in political insti- 
tutions, in ancient art and architecture, in the trans- 
mission of the classics to us through the manuscripts, and 
in other like subjects. It is more and more coming to 
mean an extended visit to Rome, preferably a year spent 
in the American School at Rome. 



CHAPTER XIV 

MODERN LANGUAGES 
W. H. Carruth, Ph.D. 

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF GERMAN, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS 

Excepting a limited field of facial and sign expression, 
language is the primary means of communication for men 
and, hence, the primary means of acquiring all knowl- 
edge not arrived at by direct experimentation. From 
the moment of birth the infant is studying its mother 
tongue and devotes on an average one year to the acquisi- 
tion of its first word, and five or six years to the mastery 
of a vocabulary of five hundred words and the manage- 
ment of the simple sentence. The average man never 
masters his language and even the so-called masters of 
the language are always at school, never complete their 
discipline. 

Language Study Should Begin Early. — These simple 
observations furnish a foundation for the theory of lan- 
guage study when applied to a second language. It 
should begin as early as possible; it is preliminary, a 
means to other attainments; it cannot expect to proceed 
suddenly. It involves a training of the ear, of the mem- 
ory, and of the analytical and comparative judgment. 
Inasmuch as the right relations of men depend upon 
correct understanding of terms, precision in language 
must accompany exact justice in conduct Expression 
in language is a constant exercise in approximation to 

277 



278 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

reality, a constant appeal to the logical, the ethical or the 
aesthetic sense. A living language, when studied by a 
thinking being, is not only a science, but as its exercise 
develops in precision and variety and potency of expres- 
sion, it becomes the highest of the arts. A common 
medium of communication is the primary essential to 
neighborly and national intercourse and good-will. The 
knowledge of a nation's language throws down the bar- 
riers of prejudice and opens the way to that nation's 
highest intellectual and spiritual treasures. 

Early Methods of Instruction. — It was not until the 
eighteenth century that modern foreign languages received 
regular attention in the public schools, as French in the 
schools of Prussia. And not until the nineteenth century 
were they anywhere considered as possible equals of, or 
substitutes for, the ancient languages in the school curric- 
ulum. Until the second decade of the nineteenth century 
the method of instruction had been that of the instruction 
of monastic and parish schools in ancient languages, a 
foundation of grammar taught by memorizing of rules 
and forms and word-lists, followed by memorizing and 
translating and interpreting of texts. Everywhere, of 
course, individuals had learned living foreign languages 
by the simple old method of dwelling among and mixing 
with the people. Doubtless here and there some pri- 
vate instruction had followed this method. But regular 
school instruction had been deductive, or synthetic. 

The Inductive or Reading Method. — In the first quarter 
of the nineteenth century James Hamilton in England 
and America, and Jacotot in France, introduced the ana- 
lytic or inductive method, which has since been called 
the reading method: Beginning with a portion of text, 
memorized and explained, and deriving the principles of 



MODERN LANGUAGES 279 

grammar from this, to be in turn applied to further por- 
tions of text, the system of grammar approaching com- 
pleteness as the amount of text became considerable. 
This method was applied to living as well as to ancient 
languages. 

In schools for girls French and Italian had places in 
the curriculum long before modern languages were ad- 
mitted to the secondary school for men. Special schools 
for commercial and diplomatic training also offered in- 
struction in modern languages before they were accepted 
in the schools that prepared for college and university. 
The demand for the practical, "Realien," led in the 
second quarter of the nineteenth century to the estab- 
lishment in Prussia of secondary schools in which modern 
languages displaced, or largely displaced, the ancient. 
In Germany these secondary schools, Realschulen and 
Realgymnasien, have many of the privileges of the Gym- 
nasien, but their graduates are not yet received into all 
the schools ("Faculties") of the Prussian universities. 
In the United States modern languages were accepted 
as a portion of the requirement for college entrance 
as early as i860, but as possible substitutes for Latin 
only since 1900 and only in a few of the Western 
universities. 

The Natural Method. — In 1843, Gottlieb Heness, in 
his "Leitfaden zum deutschen Unterricht," announced 
a modified method of instruction which has since been 
widely developed and called the natural method; also, 
the genetic or the psychologic method. Its characteristic 
is the use in the class room of the language to be taught, 
both in the regular instruction and in conversation, 
which turns upon the "Realien" of the room; formal 
grammar is taught only as commentary on the Ian- 



280 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

guage used and translation into the native language is 
avoided. Nearly forty years after Heness, Sauveur 
applied the method to French in "Causeries avec mes 
eleves" and also to Latin. About the same time as 
Sauveur, Gouin in his "L'art d'enseigner et d'etudier 
les Iangues," developed a variety of this method, the chief 
differences of which are, the grouping of the exercises in 
logical series and the sentences of each exercise about a 
single theme or process, and the greater emphasis on 
memorizing. This method was later popularized by 
Betis in England. 

The Reform Method. — Only two years after Gouin, 
Vietor, in Germany, gave the word for a reform of lan- 
guage methods in his "Der Sprachunterricht muss um- 
kehren." It was several years before his suggestions 
developed into what is sometimes called the "phonetic" 
method, or, in Germany, the "reform" method. This 
again is largely a modification of the "natural" method, 
or, more closely, of the "psychological" method. It 
dwells strongly on conversation based on "Realien" and 
postpones formal grammar and literature beyond the first 
two years. Its marked characteristic is the insistence 
on physiological study of pronunciation and the use of 
phonetic alphabet and texts during the first two or more 
years of reading. The individual representatives of the 
reform have introduced various ingenious and sensible 
features into their instruction. 

Development of Text-Books. — Live and wise teachers 
have taken note of the suggestions of all these methods, 
and the authors of text-books have adopted those that 
commend themselves as suitable to the conditions of 
American secondary schools and the preparation of our 
teachers. As a rule, what is put forward as a new method 



MODERN LANGUAGES 281 

is the method of an individual and can seldom be adopted 
bodily by other teachers. But the analytic, the genetic, 
the natural, and the phonetic methods have all made 
their impress on the text-books and apparatus of modern 
language teaching. In i860 there were not over a dozen 
grammars and special school texts for teachers in modern 
languages in America. Within fifty years the number has 
grown to many hundreds, which are constantly being 
revised or displaced by better ones. Six or eight pub- 
lishing houses devote a considerable part of their atten- 
tion to preparing good texts for modern language work. 
While the teacher may well give heed to selecting the 
best of these, the poorest are much better than anything 
that was available sixty years ago. 

Illustrative Material. — Similarly, the growing demand 
in all the newer methods for "Realien" has brought forth 
an increasing supply of illustrative material for the class 
room. Among these may be mentioned song books, 
for use in class and in the language club; stereopticons 
and reflectoscopes, with an enormous quantity of illus- 
trations in the way of slides and postals; phonographs 
and speech records, though the supply in this direction is 
inadequate (however, with a little practice each teacher 
can make his own) ; maps of foreign countries and plans 
of cities; phonetic charts; wall pictures of foreign archi- 
tecture, of scenery, of authors, and copies of works of 
art; illustrated books and illustrated journals. While 
it is not easy to obtain appropriations for these articles 
from school boards in smaller places, money may be 
obtained for such purposes by plays and entertainments 
given by the pupils in modern languages and sometimes 
by appeals to public-spirited citizens. Such gifts bless 
the givers and increase their interest in the schools. 



282 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

The Preparation of the Teacher. — As in other fields, 
the teacher of a language should know his subject. He 
should also know the difficulties of acquiring it, that is, 
should understand the point of view of the learner. And 
he should know by theory and practice the devices, 
methods, and apparatus which best serve his end. 
"Knowing his subject" is, however, a relative expression. 
Opinion has been divided as to whether the teacher of a 
foreign language should, or need not, be a native to the 
language born. The native has a facility in the control 
of his language which others rarely acquire. But one 
may have this control and yet lack an essential element; 
the control of his subject by the teacher must be a con- 
scious control. One who knows no language but his own 
rarely has this. Again, one who has himself had to learn 
a language understands its difficulties as a native rarely 
does. So that there are advantages on both sides. Cer- 
tain it is, that the teacher of a modern foreign language 
should be able to express himself in it with reasonable 
ease. This power is rarely acquired in less than three or 
four years of consecutive study and then usually only by 
practice among natives. So that as a minimum prepa- 
ration forty hours of high school or college study of the 
language, not less than twenty of this amount to be in 
college, and three months in the foreign country is a 
moderate requirement. It is assumed that the teacher has 
acquired during this course of study a knowledge of some 
of the masterpieces of literature, an outline of the history 
and the literature of the people, some acquaintance with 
their spirit, ideals, and customs. In addition to the 
knowledge of his subject on such a minimum basis, the 
teacher should have prepared for his work by special 
study of the methods of instruction, either by visiting and 



MODERN LANGUAGES 283 

observing the methods of successful teachers, or by the 
pursuit of special courses to this end, and if possible he 
should have had some opportunity to put these methods 
into practice under the guidance and criticism of expe- 
rienced leaders. 

In stating such a minimum of preparation, which in 
practice is much higher than that possessed by many who 
are compelled to undertake work for which they are not 
properly prepared, it is felt on the one hand that this 
minimum is pitifully scanty; and on the other hand the 
fact is not ignored that many a teacher of tact and gifts 
has succeeded with much less. Good-will and the desire 
to help, combined with good sense and a natural faculty 
of expression, are more essential for success in teaching 
than any prescribed attainments. Nevertheless, the good 
teacher should have all the attainment possible. Better 
if, in addition to the minimum here stated, he have a 
year or more in the country whose tongue he would 
teach, special study and training in speech physiology 
and phonetics, and knowledge of the historical develop- 
ment of the language. It is presumed, in what has been 
said, that the teacher has a thorough mastery of the 
grammar of his own tongue as well as a high school 
course, at least, in Latin. There is also gain in a knowl- 
edge of a second modern language. 

The Time to Begin Foreign Language Study. — The 
average age of American pupils on entering the second- 
ary school, fourteen, is too high for the best results in 
foreign language study. For the reasons suggested at 
the opening of this chapter the age of ten would be better. 
But it can scarcely be expected that a foreign language 
should find a place in the fifth grade, since the pupil's 
time is absorbed in acquiring the elements of his own 



284 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

tongue and the rudiments of knowledge. In the seventh 
grade, however, time can be found, to be taken profitably 
from advanced reading and English grammar, for the 
beginning of at least one foreign language. There are 
good reasons to support the claim of either Latin or Ger- 
man for this place. If Latin is begun here, German has 
the advantage of the discipline thus obtained. On the 
other hand, the pupil of twelve is perhaps more easily 
interested in the living language. But if German is the 
language begun here, there are more chances that Latin 
will not be taken up at all. At any rate, the age of twelve, 
the beginning of the seventh grade, is, all things con- 
sidered, the best place for taking up a foreign language, 
and it should be urged upon school boards as at least an 
elective, not waiting for the better day discussed in 
Chapter III, when this grade shall belong to the high 
school curriculum. 

Under the four-year high school curriculum Latin is in 
a large majority of schools the primary foreign language, 
begun in the first year, while if a second foreign language 
is pursued it is usually German, to be begun in the 
second year. French may be taken instead of German, 
or it may be begun in the third year, although very few 
students pursue three foreign languages in the secondary 
school. Within the last ten years in many schools an 
option has been given between French and Spanish, or 
between German and Spanish, with many takers. In 
several States this option has been extended to the Latin, 
the only requirement being a certain minimum of foreign 
language. In all this variety one point is agreed upon: 
that two languages should not be begun in the same year. 

It is not the purpose of this chapter to discuss in detail 
the relative advantages of the various languages. The 



MODERN LANGUAGES 285 

writer has some prejudice for the German. But, con- 
sidering all the factors in the case — the established stand- 
ards of Latin attainment, the value of the mental disci- 
pline to be derived from language study, together with the 
actual value of even a scanty acquaintance with Latin 
roots and forms and Roman traditions — the writer is in- 
clined to counsel caution in substituting the as yet more 
yeasty ideals of modern language instruction for the 
sure benefits of the Latin, and to urge the speedy estab- 
lishment of standards for the modern languages and 
thoroughness in the preparation of teachers of the same, 
against the day quite plainly coming when high school 
pupils will all have this option. When the teachers of 
German and French and Spanish shall have as definite 
aims, and be as thoroughly trained for their work, the 
writer believes that German at least will have nearly all 
the advantages of Latin, with certain others that more 
than counterbalance those the German has not. Certain 
geographical locations will turn the scale slightly in favor 
of Spanish or French as the first language to be taken up. 
Courses in Modern Languages. — The Committee of 
Twelve of the American Modern Language Association 
(see Report in Bibliography), has carefully outlined the 
work of two-year, three-year, and four-year courses in 
German and French, recommending that these be called 
elementary, intermediate, and advanced courses. The 
suggestions of the committee have been widely followed 
and have been subject to slight revision by various State 
and district conferences. The high school teacher is 
advised to procure and study the report. The list of 
texts recommended by the Committee of Twelve to be 
read in the various grades may wisely be extended. If 
the high school course in German or French is limited 



286 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to two years, as in so many cases, it seems highly desirable 
that the pupils should not lose this, perhaps their only, 
opportunity to become acquainted with a standard classic 
of the language studied. In this case "Wilhelm Tell" 
for German and "Colomba" or "Le Cid" for French 
may well be read in the second half of the second year. 
In German, at least, no one-year course should be en- 
couraged. 

The following may indicate a fair division of the work 
by years, or units, meaning five periods a day for the 
school year. 

i. The work of the first year should comprise: 
(i) Careful and persistent drill upon connected pro- 
nunciation; 

(2) Drill upon the rudiments of grammar; viz., upon 
inflections, including the more usual strong or irregular 
verbs; also upon the use of the more common prepositions, 
the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries, and the elemen- 
tary rules of syntax and word-order; accompanied by 

(3) The memorizing and frequent repetition of easy 
colloquial sentences; 

(4) Abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix 
in mind the forms and principles of grammar, but also 
to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms 
of expression; 

(5) The reading of from 50 to 100 pages of graduated 
texts from a reader or other text, with constant practice 
in translating into German easy variations upon sen- 
tences selected from the reading lesson (the teacher giv- 
ing the English). 

2. The work of the second year should comprise: 
(1) The reading of from 150 to 200 pages of suitable 
texts in the form of easy stories and plays; 



MODERN LANGUAGES 287 

(2) Accompanying practice, as before, in the transla- 
tion into German and easy variations upon the matter 
read; 

(3) Continued drill upon the essentials of the grammar, 
including the difficulties of the infinitive and the subjunc- 
tive, the separable verbs and word-order. 

The net results of the first two years of a high school 
German course should be: 

(a) A correct and ready pronunciation. 

(b) A ready, exact, and fairly complete working knowl- 
edge of grammar, especially on the formal (inflectional) 
side. 

(c) At least some ability to speak and understand the 
foreign spoken language. 

(d) A better understanding of the grammatical struct- 
ure of the English language. 

The work of the third year should comprise (1) a 
thorough and systematic review of the grammar in con- 
nection with suitable systematic practice in composition; 
(2) the reading of some three hundred to four hundred 
pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry with an 
effort to secure its appreciation as literature. 

The work of the fourth year should comprise the read- 
ing of about five hundred pages of good modern literature, 
with reference readings on the lives and works of the 
authors, the writing of short themes upon the work done, 
and perhaps a brief outline of the history of German lit- 
erature. 

In the case of French this programme may serve with 
an increase of fifty per cent in the amount to be read. 



CHAPTER XV 
HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY 

Wayland J. Chase, A.M. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

Importance of the Study of History. — Modern educa- 
tional theory in interpreting education as adjustment, 
necessarily gives an important place in the school curricu- 
lum to history and its cognate subjects, civics and politi- 
cal economy. The high school pupil is a member of 
society and a citizen of a commonwealth, with social 
and political obligations that grow with his growth, and 
it inevitably results that social and political institutions 
constitute increasingly important elements in his sur- 
roundings. These he must understand if he is to be a 
good citizen, and he can really understand them only in 
the light of their origins and through acquaintance with 
their growth and development. What geology does for 
the student in revealing the changes through which the 
earth's surface has come to be what it is, history with 
civics and economics does for him in the realm of human 
activities, explaining how and why men have come to 
possess their present ideals and beliefs, to have the forms 
of industry, government, law, and religion that they now 
have, and to live according to present modes and customs. 
These subjects, interpreted to boys and girls by wisely 
directed study, revolutionize their conceptions of their 
relations to mankind and to society, and their ideas of 

288 



HISTORY 289 

their country's relation to the world; thus human sym- 
pathy is developed and strengthened, and provincialism 
broken down. 

The ability to take large views of life's concerns and 
interests, freed from narrow ideals and restricted outlook, 
is reckoned an element of strength in an individual. 
So travel, giving the sense of space and of largeness of 
the world, and acquaintance with new conditions of life, 
is felt to be a great advantage. After the manner of the 
favored traveller, the student of history traverses distances, 
especially in the realm of time, and not least important 
among the results of this journeying is a real conception 
of the meaning of time, such as can be obtained only from 
the study of man's slow progress upward. In learning 
to reckon progress from the stone age rather than from 
the immediate past, the pupil takes a long step away from 
narrowness and provincialism, and comes into contact 
with peoples previously undreamed of, working under 
strange and novel conditions at tasks unheard of by him 
before. His horizon is extended, the mansion of his mind 
is refurnished. He is enabled to view and estimate life's 
affairs apart from their immediate relation to himself. 

In all this there is much more than the pageant ele- 
ment, the moving picture show, for, besides the broad- 
ening and liberalizing effects which enlarge the spiritual 
nature of the pupil, these studies also afford intellectual 
training of very definite sort. 

Memory is the most wonderful and important of our 
intellectual faculties, and all that tends to strengthen and 
develop it is of the highest importance. History is fore- 
most among the studies that do this, for in its very nature it 
is a memory study, and memory gains facility by practice. 
It has been too commou to decry the practical value of 



290 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the imagination. Attention needs often to be called to 
the fact that all exploits begin with a vision of the possi- 
ble and are products of constructive imagination. To 
be able to dream great things must be wedded to the 
capacity to accomplish them in order to have efficiency, 
but imagination is an essential element of this partner- 
ship. The study which compels the pupil to hear the 
shock and clash of the Persian and Greek ships at Salamis 
and to feel the suffering of our forefathers at Valley Forge 
is continually an exercise in constructive imagination. 
That mathematics and natural science train the logical 
powers and develop the judgment all concede, but these 
studies deal with problems the conditions of which in 
their comparative simplicity are unlike every-day human 
conditions, and they teach conclusions whose certainty 
is rarely to be found in practical life. How delightful 
it would be if every life problem could be solved like 
an equation by substitution, and how grateful would be 
that assurance of the correctness of the answer which we 
feel when the problem in mathematics has been solved! 
That very certainty of conditions and conclusions which 
characterizes these properly named exact sciences is want- 
ing in the problems of life. Life is not an exact science 
and its problems are complex and intricate and require 
for their solution the careful balancing of considerations, 
and examination from several sides. The problems pre- 
sented by the study of history are just the problems of 
every-day life with all their complications, intricacy, and 
human quality, and therefore afford excellent material 
for the practice of judgment and training of the reason- 
ing powers. History deals with men and women, with 
motives of human action, and with agencies that have 
influenced human life and still continue to do so. No 



HISTORY 291 

other study offers such opportunity for training in esti- 
mating men, their characters, their powers, and their 
probable courses of action. There is brought to the 
student a growing realization of the complexity of civili- 
zation and society and of the multitude of causes and 
agencies at work, and he becomes habituated to seeking 
and weighing evidence and to suspending judgment till 
all has been heard. 

These intellectual values constitute the choicest prod- 
ucts of this study, but it must be recognized that they 
are yielded up to the student rather than to the mere 
reader: that the study of history involves and demands 
the application of aims and methods as earnest and 
thorough-going as those by which enduring success is 
obtained in other fields of knowledge. From such study 
there may also be expected training in oral and written 
expression and ability to use and enjoy good books. 

Undoubtedly ethical training is also afforded, espe- 
cially in the form of ideals. It is proverbial that truth 
embodied in a tale has great power of penetration, and 
doubtless most of these ethical lessons can be left for his- 
tory unaided to teach. 

History as a High School Study of Recent Adoption. — 
The recognition of the value of history for high school 
pupils has come practically within the last quarter of a 
century. Before 1892 history had not been generally 
adopted as a high school study, though general history, 
American history, ancient history, and occasionally Eng- 
lish history were all variously included in some high 
school courses of study and in many college entrance 
requirements. At the Saratoga meeting of the National 
Education Association, July, 1892, a committee of ten 
was appointed to select members of conferences which 



292 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

should consider, for each subject of the programme of 
secondary schools and of college admission requirements, 
"the proper limits, the best methods of instruction, the 
most desirable allotment of time for the subject, and the 
best methods of testing the pupils' attainments therein." 
For the subjects of history, civil government, and po- 
litical economy, a sub-committee of ten was appointed 
which met in Madison, Wisconsin, December, 1892. In 
their report this sub-committee recommended that in 
school programmes there be given to history not less 
than three periods a week for eight years, of which four 
should be in the high school and four in the grammar 
grades. Definite and detailed recommendations were 
made as to methods of teaching, qualifications of teachers, 
school apparatus, and fields and topics for study. By 
the finding of this conference and the discussions it 
aroused, a definite impetus was given to the study of 
history in American secondary schools, and by 1896 
there were more than two hundred thousand high school 
pupils studying this subject. 

Nevertheless, though other national and State educa- 
tional organizations had given consideration to these 
matters, no general agreement had yet been reached as 
to relative values, proper order and place in the school 
curriculum of the different subjects of history, and uni- 
formity as to aim and method of teaching. In view of 
this situation the American Historical Association, in the 
winter of 1896, appointed a committee of seven members 
to consider history in the secondary schools in its various 
aspects, and report to the association. This committee 
gave prolonged and detailed consideration to the subject 
referred to it and made and published recommendations 
which have been especially influential. 



HISTORY 293 

This Report of the Committee of Seven recommended 
that where possible there should be in the high school 
curriculum four blocks or periods covering four years, 
(i) Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and 
Roman, but with a brief introductory study of the more 
ancient nations, and extending to about 800 A. D. (2) 
Mediaeval and modern European history from the close 
of the first period to the present. (3) English history. 
(4) American history and civil government. For those 
schools where four years for history appeared impracti- 
cable, it was suggested that either English and American 
history be combined and the main facts of English history 
taught through American colonial and later political 
history, or that English history be treated "in such a 
way as to include the most important elements of medi- 
aeval and modern English history." The committee urged 
strongly the value of historical study, denied, however, 
value to general history, discussed at length methods of 
teaching and qualifications for teachers of history, com- 
pared American with foreign teaching of this subject, 
treated briefly of history below the high school, and in 
various other ways presented much helpful material for 
teachers. The teaching of history in the secondary 
school has been largely shaped by this report. 

A Committee of Five was appointed by the American 
Historical Association in 1907 to determine what modi- 
fications, if any, were needed in the recommendations of 
the Committee of Seven. The report of this later com- 
mittee appeared in 191 1 and in very large degree sup- 
ported the recommendations of its predecessor. Recog- 
nizing the growing interest in the study of modern Eu- 
ropean history, it suggests a new schedule of history 
courses. Of this the first year is to be ancient history 



294 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

as in the recommendation of the Committee of Seven; 
the second year English history to about 1760, including 
the chief facts of general European history and of Amer- 
ican colonial history; the third year modern European 
history "including such introductory matter concerning 
later mediaeval institutions and the beginnings of the 
modern age as seems wise or desirable, and giving a 
suitable treatment of English history from 1760"; the 
fourth year American history and government, so appor- 
tioned that two-fifths of the year shall be given to the 
separate study of government. The report presented, 
also, fresh and pertinent suggestions as to method of 
treatment of these periods, and urged that the time had 
arrived when in many high schools three years of his- 
tory should be required of all pupils. 

Besides the National Education Association and the 
American Historical Association, both of which continue 
to work for the advancement of history teaching, other 
teachers' organizations have rendered great help. Es- 
pecially important of these are the New England His- 
tory Teachers' Association, the Association of History 
Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, and the 
North Central History Teachers' Association. 1 

The Place of History in the Curriculum. — While there 
is still no uniformity of practice, the majority of high 
schools that offer four years of history follow the plan of 
the Committee of Seven, and those that offer three years 
commonly place ancient history in the second year of the 
high school, either mediaeval and modern history or Eng- 
lish history in the third year, and American history and 
civics in the fourth year. In a very large number of ele- 

1 This is now the Teachers' Section of the Mississippi Valley His- 
torical Association. 



HISTORY 295 

mentary schools United States history is taught in the 
eighth grade, and thus quite generally the beginnings 
of history study have been made before the pupil enters 
high school. With greatly varying content and emphasis, 
other history subjects are taught in lower grades of the 
public schools of some of the States, but there is no uni- 
formity of practice in this particular. 

Methods of Teaching. — In this subject, as in all others, 
methods of teaching are individual, varying with the 
teacher and with the conditions under which the work is 
done. Yet there are three recognized methods which 
may be considered separately, though their difference 
is practically one of emphasis. To some teachers the 
attainment of the values of history seems possible only 
through a study of source material. They would have 
their pupils get information and draw conclusions not 
from secondary narratives but direct from the raw ma- 
terial of history, and they claim for this method greater 
vividness, vitality, and interest, more real training of the 
judgment, and generally more substantial results than 
from any other method of study of the subject. Op- 
ponents of this method contend that it requires more 
source material and more time than can be put at the 
disposal of high school pupils, and that it demands more 
maturity of judgment and trained powers of investigation 
than boys and girls from fourteen to eighteen years of 
age ordinarily possess. 

To some the topical or library method commends 
itself. This is based on the assignment of topics and 
references to many books and does not rely on a narrative 
text-book, though it maybe directed by a printed syllabus. 
For this there are claimed the advantages of independence 
of a single author's interpretation of history, the acquisi- 
tion of facility in the use of books, and in collecting, com- 






296 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

paring, and estimating data, training in "the art of bal- 
ancing probabilities and forming defensible opinions," 
and greater interest, since a wider reading is insured and 
the relations of history are more appreciated. The dis- 
advantages urged against it are that it is a difficult method 
for all but experienced teachers, that a larger reference 
library is required than is ordinarily provided by school 
authorities, that pupils often obtain unconnected infor- 
mation, and that the expectation that pupils will profit 
from the reports of other pupils is not generally realized 
because of the inability of pupils to hold the attention and 
interest of their fellows. 

The third method rests upon the use of a narrative 
text-book in which regular assignments are made, and 
which is supplemented by assigned readings in both 
source and secondary materials. This obviously con- 
tains elements of both the other methods, but it claims 
the special advantages of being more serviceable for the 
inexperienced teacher, of giving greater promise of the 
mastery of essential fact material, of insuring organization 
and order for the knowledge acquired, and of affording at 
the same time opportunity for securing for the pupil inter- 
est in the subject and all the values that the study pos- 
sesses. Absolutely essential, however, to this method are 
painstaking care and judgment in the use of the text- 
book, and skill and persistence in the preparing and di- 
recting of the pupils' supplementary reading. 

The successful use of the text-book imperatively de- 
mands of the teacher not merely adequacy of knowledge 
of the general subject of history, but precise knowledge 
of the content of each lesson in the text-book, for it must 
be recognized that text-book material has varying values: 
some of it is of prime importance and must be accurately 
learned; some, having a subordinate or illustrative value, 



HISTORY 297 

needs to be understood but not to be learned, and some 
may even be disregarded. Moreover, it is the pupil's 
right to know in advance of study what these values are 
and it is the teacher's duty to make these known. There- 
fore, the assignment of the lesson to the pupils should be 
so specific as to indicate exactly what of the text they 
must learn and what may be slighted. Furthermore, the 
assignment should be interpretative to the extent of insur- 
ing that the pupils when they begin the study of the lesson 
shall not be confronted with problems of language or idea 
too difficult for their unaided comprehension; also, it 
should contain the problem element so that other mental 
processes besides memory shall be brought into the study 
of the lesson, and it should be given in such form that the 
pupils may make a careful written record of it. The 
best method of keeping this record is in a loose-leaf note- 
book which may well be made the repository of all the 
rest of the pupil's written work, such as notes on out- 
side reading, topic or chapter outlines, brief written tests, 
and outline maps. 

Success in directing the supplementary reading of 
pupils is made difficult in very many schools by a lack 
of library facilities, and especially by a failure to provide 
enough copies of the same books. The problem contains 
these elements: The selection from the available books 
of material really supplementary to the essential facts 
of the text-book; such a method of assigning this read- 
ing as shall make clear to the pupil both precisely where 
and precisely what the facts are that he is to search for; 
the making the available books as accessible as possible 
for all, and the adjustment of the time demands of this 
outside reading to the other school demands upon the 
pupil; and the devising of adequate means for securing 



298 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the faithful performance of the tasks set. The amount 
of this supplementary reading must vary with the ex- 
perience and skill of the teacher, the maturity and pro- 
ficiency of the pupils, and the library facilities of the 
school. The recommendation of the Committee of the 
North Central History Teachers' Association in 1908 
set the minimum achievement "in carefully selected 
supplementary reading" thus: "In ancient history, 200 
pages; mediaeval and modern history, each, 150 pages; 
English history, 300 pages, and American history, 350 
pages ; of all of which one-fourth should be source ma- 
terial." 

Aids to Teaching. — Most facts of history have vital 
relations of time and place, so that, involved with the 
questions of what and why, are also the questions of when 
and where. The element of chronology it is desirable to 
reduce to its lowest terms, but certain pivotal dates are 
absolutely necessary, and should be fastened by drill, 
time charts, frequent questioning as to contemporary 
happenings, and all other suitable devices. The relation 
of geography to history involves more elements than 
space and distance, and the student must be taught very 
early to interpret a map in terms of the physiographic 
features it presents and to respect the significance of 
these. Wall maps, charts of historical geography, the 
maps and plans of the text-book, and atlas and outline 
maps are all valuable aids. In the first two marked im- 
provement has been made in recent years, so that clear- 
ness and simplicity, due emphasis on physiographical 
features, and accuracy are now characteristic of them. 
The history text-book is not now considered adequate 
unless it contains many maps to illustrate and re-enforce 
the narrative. Outline maps lend themselves admirably 



HISTORY 299 

to the developing and testing of the geographical knowl- 
edge of pupils, but should be used with a clear recognition 
of two dangers — one, that too great a dependence on them 
keeps the pupil from acquiring, through practice in mak- 
ing his own outline maps, a real knowledge of continent 
coast-line or territorial shape; and the other, that the 
picture-drawing feature, especially where coloring of po- 
litical areas is resorted to, becomes an end in itself. 

There are other aids which every well-equipped class 
room should have, especially illustrative material in the 
form of pictures, busts, and models. The first named, 
for the wall and for individual use, are now provided at 
small cost by many dealers, and in great variety. The 
stereopticon and reflectoscope are of the highest value as 
agencies of illustration. Under the stimulus of the ex- 
ample of foreign manufacturers, especially of Germany, 
the sources of illustrative material of all these sorts are 
multiplying in our country. 

Civil Government. — Civil government is taught through 
and with history, and, in addition, is commonly allotted 
its special portion of time. This allotment is usually in 
the senior year, where it sometimes precedes the course 
in United States history, but commonly follows it. To 
make it the effective training for citizenship that it is 
designed to be, every effort must be employed to give it 
concreteness and to implant in the pupils high ideals of 
citizenship as well as information. These ideals are best 
inculcated when the pupils are made to realize fully that 
they are already citizens and possess present duties and 
responsibilities in connection with both the school and the 
community life, and are kindled to a real zeal for the dis- 
charge of these obligations. Concreteness can be given 
to the subject by identifying it as fully as possible with 



300 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

those aspects of government most near to the pupils and 
most easily observed and studied in their every-day work- 
ings. Visits to the various departments of local govern- 
ment, talks to the class by local government officials, the 
possession for purposes of examination and study of as 
many legal and political documents as possible that are 
part of the machinery of government — all assist in giv- 
ing reality and vitality to this subject instead of permit- 
ting it to seem merely a school study. 

Political Economy. — The last two decades have seen 
greater emphasis laid on the economic aspects of history, 
and in consequence the high school student has received 
more training in the principles of political economy 
through his history study than was once the case. The 
Committee of Ten of the National Education Associa- 
tion, because of the lack of adequately prepared teachers 
and proper text-books, recommended that this subject 
be not taught as a separate study in the high schools. 
But the increase in the number of commercial high schools 
and the growing demand for commercial subjects have 
operated to improve the text-books and the qualifications 
of teachers, and the study has now an independent status 
in many school programmes. The methods of teaching 
demanded by it are essentially those of history and civics; 
success, however, requires an even larger use of illustra- 
tive material and of the facts of the pupil's environment, 
to the end that the subject of economics shall be made real 
and closely related to his every-day life. Purely text- 
book work in this subject is peculiarly ineffective, and 
consequently it makes all the greater demand upon the 
knowledge, the enthusiasm, the skill, and the resource- 
fulness of the teacher. Reports on outside reading, de- 
bates, study of current topics, close scrutiny of local 



HISTORY 301 

economic problems and conditions, all must be brought 
into service. 

Unusual Demand on Teacher of History. — History, 
civics, and economics poorly taught have even less value 
as instruments of education than the older subjects of the 
high school curriculum when inadequately handled. For 
the former do not of themselves furnish a strong stimulus 
to intellectual energy. Whatever liberalizing influence 
the reading of history may have for the thoughtful adult, 
it is for the average boy and girl but a superficial process, 
not possessed of great value. History must be inter- 
preted for the high school pupil; the skilful teacher must 
take him back of words and phrases into the meaning, 
and must put the problem element into the subject so 
that the pupil may be made to think while he reads. In 
many other subjects the teacher has the aid of recitation 
features that serve to fix the attention, as the text does 
for the student of language, or the blackboard figure and 
the algebra problem in black and white do for the student 
of mathematics, or the tangible material of the laboratory 
does for the student of science. The teacher of history 
and of its allied subjects lacks these auxiliaries, and must 
supply from his own personality or resources as a teacher 
a correspondingly larger power to interest and to hold 
the attention of pupils. It is still sometimes the case 
that any teacher of the high school force who seems to be 
not fully occupied is judged competent to take the courses 
in history, but it is more and more recognized that the 
subject really calls for special qualifications and prepared- 
ness. 

Preparation of Teacher of History.— This preparation 
should consist first of all in adequate knowledge of the 
subject. This operates for the teacher's success in a 



302 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

variety of ways. It insures that truth, not misinforma- 
tion, will be the portion of the pupil; it enables the teacher 
to enrich the recitation by positive contribution of worth- 
ful fact, by clear interpretation of difficult material, and 
by illuminating illustration; it inspires the respect of 
the pupil which in turn begets that docility which is 
truly the beginning of wisdom, and it affords to the 
teacher in the class room independence of the text-book, 
and gives him better mastery of discipline; it places time 
at his disposal for the deliberate consideration of ques- 
tions of method and for devising ways and means of 
giving superlative effectiveness to the recitation. 

The prospective teacher in his own study of history 
should have two aims : first, to gain a general knowledge 
of each of the four fields taught in the high school, such 
as would be secured from a year's college course in each; 
second, such intensive study of selected periods as will 
suffice to secure appreciation of the task and the methods 
of the historian and to become acquainted with the prin- 
ciples of historical criticism. 

But it is not enough that he should have some degree 
of scholarly grasp of his subject. He should also under- 
stand the times in which he lives, he should understand 
boys and girls, and should have an intelligent apprecia- 
tion of the services which the high school is expected to 
render to society. To know his own times he needs to be 
as broadly trained as possible, through a range of sub- 
jects that interpret life, society, and government. The 
demand for broad outlook on life and for broad human 
sympathies is made with special force of teachers of his- 
tory because in the complex of forces and agencies that 
have made history, the same influences have been active 
that make up the life of to-day. So that it is as true that 



HISTORY 303 

one must know his own times in order to understand the 
past as it is that one must know the past in order to com- 
prehend the present. 

The innate and often unrealized understanding of boy 
and girl nature is doubtless that quality which "born 
teachers" have in an unusual degree, enabling them 
skilfully to adapt methods of teaching and subject- 
matter to their pupils' needs. Some of this sort of grasp 
the prospective teacher must seek from courses of study 
on psychology and educational theory, especially related 
to the period of adolescence. His knowledge of history 
must be reshaped and worked over with a view to meet- 
ing the needs of immature minds; he must endeavor to 
gain through courses on methods an acquaintance with 
some of the special problems that history teaching pre- 
sents; and through observation of the work of skilled 
teachers and through practice work under expert guid- 
ance he should seek skill in presenting the subject to 
the immature. 



CHAPTER XVI 

DRAWING, FREE-HAND AND MECHANICAL 

Walter Sargent 

professor of fine and industrial art in relation to 

education, chicago university 

Importance of Art Study. — The fine arts of all cen- 
turies present concrete embodiments of certain phases of 
human experience which have no other adequate language, 
and which are comparable in importance and influence to 
the experiences expressed through literature and music. 
Where acquaintance with art is lacking, the individual is 
largely shut out from these significant fields of human ex- 
pression and interpretation. 

Appreciation of art means ability to avail oneself of 
the interpretations of these phases of human experience. 
This results not only in the enjoyment of the particular 
objects of art studied, but also in appreciation of the type 
of beauty which these works of art embody when it oc- 
curs in nature; because it is generally true that the finer 
effects of natural beauty are evident to the majority only 
after they have been interpreted into some form of artis- 
tic expression. In other words, things become pictu- 
resque after they have been pictured. Thus, one who has 
come to enjoy a great landscape, perhaps by Corot or 
Turner, or an unusually subtle type of human beauty, 
as the "Unknown Lady of the Louvre," finds that he 

304 



DRAWING 305 

recognizes in familiar landscapes or in actual faces effects 
of beauty which the artist has interpreted for him and 
which he would not have noticed but for his acquaint- 
ance with that interpretation. 

Function of Art in Public Education. — One's unaided 
observation soon develops a narrow range of preferences, 
and is not likely, unaided, to expand this by the appre- 
ciation and enjoyment of new types. Art embodies the 
observational inheritance of the race. The aesthetic 
function of art in public education is to open a broader 
range of beauty to the individual, to make significant 
and enjoyable things that otherwise would have remained 
unnoticed, and to accustom the eye to delight in graceful 
forms and harmonious colors to a degree that is not 
possible without some special instruction. 

The Demand for Beauty Innate. — Artistic expression 
appears not only in painting and sculpture but in the 
forms of necessary articles of use. The demand for 
beauty in the design and decoration of constructed ob- 
jects and in every-day surroundings manifests itself as 
early in human history as the demand for utility. Cer- 
tain principles of preference in matters of shape and 
color and arrangement appear to be inherent in human 
nature. These insure a ready response to the right sort 
of stimulus, so that some degree of good taste in design 
may easily be developed. 

This desire for design and decoration is insistent, and, 
if untrained, indulges in profusion of ornament, crude 
forms, and startling colors in the attempt to find satisfac- 
tion in mere repetition of strong sensations. It misses the 
keen pleasure experienced by those who learn to dis- 
tinguish between the transitory attractiveness of mere 
prettiness and the permanent and vitalizing enjoyment 



306 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of beautiful things. Standards of taste are not mere 
individual preferences, but are based on certain elements 
innate in the constitution of the human mind. 

Art is thus called upon to exert its influence in the field 
of industry by human demands so fundamental that no 
commercial nation can afford either from a social or from 
an industrial stand-point to neglect them. 

Working Drawings. — One highly specialized form of 
graphic expression is that of working drawings. So long 
as constructive work remains simple and the materials 
inexpensive and easily handled, processes may be carried 
on by experimenting with actual material and reshaping 
it whenever necessary to secure the desired results. As 
soon as problems become complicated and materials 
expensive, such a method is uneconomical in time and 
cost. 

To meet the demands, a universal language of form 
has been developed by which processes and results may 
be accurately predetermined. Diagrams, patterns, and 
the highly developed conventions of working drawing 
furnish a medium by which constructive ideas may be 
carried to detailed perfection and the external world of 
stubborn materials mastered to a great degree in terms 
of a language. 

History of Art Study in America. — The following state- 
ments regarding the history of this subject in American 
public education are gathered largely from the report of 
1880 on American Education in Fine and Industrial Art, 
prepared under direction of the Bureau of Education, by 
J. Edwards Clarke in response to a Senate resolution 
requesting a statement "relative to the development of 
instruction in drawing as applied to the industrial or fine 
arts . . . with special reference to the utility of such 



DRAWING 307 

instruction in promoting the arts and industries of the 
people." 

In 1749 Benjamin Franklin in his "Proposed Hints for 
an Academy," recommended drawing as one of the sub- 
jects to be taught. In 182 1 William Bentley Fowle, an 
original thinker, but evidently without much previous 
experience in teaching, became master of a large boys' 
school in Boston. He introduced blackboards into 
Boston schools; and on these blackboards and on paper 
or slates, pupils drew maps and in addition to this use in 
geography, "linear drawing . . . was made a regular 
exercise." 

As early as 1838, Henry Barnard who was later ap- 
pointed as the first United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, delivered in many parts of the country an address 
on industrial education in which he urged that drawing 
be taught in the common schools. 

Rembrandt Peale, an artist in Philadelphia, taught 
drawing as a branch of general education in the schools, 
from about 1840 to 1844. In Baltimore, Mr. William 
Minifie taught drawing in 1848 and 1849. 

The innovations of Mr. Fowle, Mr. Peale, and Mr. 
Minifie aroused much opposition among some school 
officials, and on this account their connection with the 
public schools as teachers of drawing was brief. How- 
ever, these and other sporadic cases in different locali- 
ties were indicative of a growing interest in the subject. 
Their arguments for drawing were mainly that it sup- 
plied a primary need of education. The industrial value 
of the subject was made prominent but secondary. Later, 
the industrial argument was made the major considera- 
tion by those interested in the matter, and it was on this 
basis that in 1870 drawing was by legislative enactment 



308 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

made a required subject in the public schools of Massa- 
chusetts. This State at this time secured the services 
of Mr. Walter Smith from England. He instructed 
teachers, addressed meetings throughout the State, and 
became first principal of the Massachusetts Normal Art 
School. Training schools in different parts of the coun- 
try were also established, and the supply of well-pre- 
pared special teachers steadily increased. 

The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 
exerted a peculiarly strong influence in favor of public art 
education. The educational and industrial exhibitions 
were a revelation to the American people of the possi- 
bilities and of their own shortcomings along this line. 
The movement for greater opportunities for instruction 
in drawing, design, and industrial work received a fresh 
impulse. 

Recognition of the arts in high school courses has been 
general during the past decade. The United States 
Bureau of Education 1 received in 1909 returns from 620 
high schools; 572 included fine or industrial art in 
their courses. In 455 of these schools this subject has 
been introduced since the beginning of the year 1900. In 
258 schools art work is required, and in 319 it is elective. 

Free-Hand and Mechanical Drawing and Design. — The 
values of free-hand and mechanical drawing and design 
in high school courses are now regarded somewhat as 
follows: Drawing is the language of form and color 
and a means of recording observation and experience. 
In scientific studies, drawing furnishes a convenient 
means of mating graphic and accurate records of obser- 

1 Bulletin, 1909, No. 6. "Instruction in the Fine and Manual Arts in 
the United States," by Henry Turner Bailey, editor of the "School Arts 
Book." 



DRAWING 309 

vations by means of diagrams and correct delineations of 
form. The student who portrays truthfully the facts 
which he is studying, not only records his observations, 
but increases the clearness of these observations. His 
comparison of facts of structure is more definite because 
of the necessity of translating these facts into terms of 
representation. The trustworthiness of the record of his 
visual sense is increased. 

In constructive industries, graphic representation in 
the form of working drawings has become a specialized 
means of recording fully and accurately all facts of form 
and construction. Working drawings may present a per- 
fect record of any sort of mechanical construction. A 
thorough knowledge of this subject is necessary alike to 
the architect and to the engineer as a means of embodying 
his ideas previous to their completion in actual material, 
and to the workman as an adequate guide to correct 
execution of these ideas. 

In the form of free-hand sketching, drawing offers to 
the industrial worker a means of endless experimentation 
and continual comparison of results, which become a 
direct stimulation to invention and give opportunity to 
think out plans and details with great completeness, before 
he is compelled to deal with actual mechanical proc- 
esses; to accomplish with pencil and brush in terms 
of patterns, plans, and sketches much tentative work 
that would otherwise have to be undertaken with ex- 
pensive and stubborn materials. 

Where design is an important element, free-hand 
drawing furnishes the worker a method of experiment- 
ing with different arrangements of patterns and outlines, 
as in architecture, printing, ceramics, textiles, and other 
industries, where good proportions, harmonious coloring, 



310 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and beautiful outline are demanded equally with utility. 
This practice reinforced by acquaintance with examples 
of fine design develops an appreciation of standards of 
excellence in constructed objects. 

Free-hand drawing also offers a means of representing 
ideas pictorially, either by rapid sketches, or by finished 
drawings which imply a somewhat thorough study of 
form, perspective, light and shade, and composition. 
The pupil thus gains experience in interpreting the visi- 
ble world into terms of pictorial expression. In doing 
so, he is compelled to analyze his visual impressions; to 
decide what are the characteristics of objects or scenes 
which, if reproduced, will represent the impression. He 
learns to distinguish between those things which are 
significant, and the details which, though present, have 
little to do with the general effect. If the right sort of 
attention has been given to this subject in elementary 
grades, the average standard of attainment in high 
schools advances beyond what is generally supposed 
possible. Results prove that special talent is no more a 
factor to be reckoned with in those phases of the arts 
which appear in public schools, than in the mathematics, 
music, and literature which are there presented. Though 
one may produce very ordinary work in free-hand draw- 
ing, the study of form and matching of colors which are 
necessary to representation, however crude, increases 
one's understanding and enjoyment of nature, and proves 
an effective introduction to acquaintance with the fine 
arts, because it deals with the same means of expression 
that the artist uses. 

Instruction in design has as its aim development of 
good taste regarding the things which constitute every- 
day environment, a knowledge of the most artistic prod- 



DRAWING 311 

ucts of common industries, and acquaintance with ex- 
amples of good sculpture, architecture, and construction, 
not simply in ancient productions, but also in such mod- 
ern applications as local industrial products, in styles 
of design which relate to private homes, inexpensive as 
well as otherwise; in the best modern solutions of such 
problems as public buildings, railway stations, bridges, 
parks and their accessories, streets and street fixtures, 
fountains, etc. 

A comparison of typical high school courses shows that 
drawing from traditional still-life groups of objects, accom- 
panied by criticism regarding general technical excellence 
from the point of view of an artist, is being largely super- 
seded by lines of work planned definitely to meet the 
general and particular needs of the students. 

Courses in Drawing. — While courses differ in various 
localities, they usually include in some form or other 
the following: 

i. Training planned to give further development in a 
line, the foundation for which should be well laid in the 
elementary schools, namely, a mastery of such illustra- 
tive or descriptive drawing as does not require special 
talent, but does give to the person of average ability 
power to use drawing with some degree of accuracy and 
facility as a means of common expression. This implies 
ability to sketch rapidly with what might be called 
"conversational drawing" where the purpose is to con- 
vey ideas. It implies also such drawing as is valuable in 
connection with the sciences, where the purpose is not 
pictorial effect, but accurate record of observation and 
correct delineation of facts. 

2. Intensive work in drawing, painting, and model- 
ling, for those who are especially interested in actual 



312 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

practice either because they plan to continue their studies 
in art schools or because the work is a matter of general 
interest on account of the insight it gives into the field 
of art and the beauties of form and color in nature. 

These more intensive courses generally include: 

Object drawing, for the sake of ability to represent 
proportions, solidity, and texture of objects by means of 
line, light, and shade, values and color. 

Figure sketching for the sake of action and propor- 
tion. 

Plant drawing to express the grace and beauty of 
natural forms. 

Landscape sketching, to interpret effects of nature, and 
to lead pupils to discover, in the complexity which nature 
presents, the few significant elements which produce 
the impression. Landscape study is frequently supple- 
mented by the use of the camera in searching out good 
compositions and fine interpretations of familiar locali- 
ties. 

Some courses supplement practical work with illus- 
trated lectures and required readings which aim to give 
a broad survey of the development of art, some idea of 
its meaning, and a degree of response to its appeal. 

3. Working drawing, which aims to develop ability to 
present, by means of the accepted conventions of the 
draughting room, complete and accurate information re- 
garding simple forms of construction. This implies a 
knowledge of instruments and terms, some practice in 
orthographic projection, and a thorough mastery of free- 
hand sketching of working drawings with dimensions, 
and of perspective appearances. 

An increasingly clear distinction is now being made be- 
tween mere instrumental drawing which may present im- 



DRAWING 313 

pressive results, and yet require little practical knowledge 
beyond the mere manipulation of instruments, and the 
ability to make free-hand sketches which embody all 
necessary information, and which may at any time be 
translated into finished instrumental drawings. Conse- 
quently, classes in working drawing are giving more at- 
tention to that free-hand drawing in terms of which the 
first stages of most constructive thinking are expressed. 

4. Such general work in design as shall develop good 
standards of taste in those things which make up the 
furnishing of homes and ordinary surroundings, and, 
also, more complete courses in constructive and decora- 
tive design, in recognition of the increasing demand of 
the commercial world for competent workers in indus- 
trial art. 

This may well be intimately associated with the prob- 
lems in connection with the department of household 
arts, with local industries and their artistic history and 
possibilities, and with the civic art for which every com- 
munity finds a need. A person sufficiently educated to 
know how the Acropolis or the Roman Forum appears 
should know, as well, how the various civic features of an 
American community might appear under wise planning. 

Preparation in Elementary Schools. — Opinions from a 
number of high school instructors in drawing indicate that 
the most desirable preparation which elementary schools 
can provide is as follows: 

1. Ability to make with lead pencil sincere and truth- 
ful representations of simple objects so as to show gen- 
eral characteristics, correct proportions, and typical 
effects of foreshortening and solidity, and, in natural 
forms, the growth, structure, and shape. 

2. A habit of using rapid, general descriptive drawing. 



314 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

3. Appreciation of good proportions, of the simpler 
forms of natural and conventional beauty, and of color 
effects; ability to match given tones with water-colors, 
and to lay flat washes of color. 

4. Ability to take trustworthy measurements, to make 
and use patterns and simple working drawings, to use 
the more common instruments, such as rule, compass, 
T-square, and triangles, and to print readily and free- 
hand a good alphabet. 

5. A general sympathetic attitude toward art. 

Place of Drawing in High School. — The tendency in 
high school courses in drawing appears to be toward 
making it a required subject in the first, and often in the 
second year, and optional afterward, except for students 
who are planning to attend normal schools. For these 
it is frequently required during the last year. The 
amount of time ranges in general from two to five periods 
a week. Many schools grant the same credit as in the 
other unprepared subjects. The usual maximal allow- 
ance for credit appears to be two units. 

Importance of Drawing in Mechanical Pursuits. — Ig- 
norance of the influence of the arts of design upon the 
industrial progress of a country, and the persistence of 
traditions to the effect that a practical use of draw- 
ing requires special talent, and that response to the in- 
fluence of art is possible for only a few, have, in the 
past, been serious obstacles to the progress of art in 
general education. There is now a growing realization 
that it is practically impossible for any State to maintain 
eminence in the higher manufactures if the great body 
of workmen in other countries are better skilled in the 
arts of design. 

To quote from statements in the previously mentioned 



DRAWING 315 

report of the Bureau of Education : " In all matters of 
construction, in the widest sense of the word, it (drawing) 
takes the place of a knowledge of reading and writing in 
the other concerns of life, and is indispensable for giving 
and receiving intelligible ideas. A mechanic who is with- 
out it will almost always be subservient and inferior to 
one who has it, but is his inferior in most other respects. 

" Drawing is the language of mechanics, and ability to 
use the pencil freely lies at the foundation of success in 
many mechanical pursuits." 

Development of Public Taste. — Experiments on a 
large scale indicate also that good taste in matters of 
design, and a high degree of enjoyment of beauty in 
nature and in art, may be definitely developed in the 
majority of people. 

The scientific and industrial values of drawing and 
design are easily seen when attention is called to them, 
and recognition is readily accorded to them. Less ob- 
vious, but no less real, are the possibilities of opening up 
the realm of aesthetics to the majority of people by means 
of these subjects, and thus of presenting a new field of 
experience and enjoyment and furnishing an appropriate 
response to those fundamental desires for beauty which 
insist on gratification and seek it in gaudy appeals to sen- 
sation if not led to know the actual sources of satisfac- 
tion. 

Training of the Teacher. — The personality and train- 
ing of the instructors are frequently more important 
factors in advancing the status of drawing in high schools 
than formal arguments as to its value. One serious ob- 
stacle has been the frequent narrow specialization in 
preparation which results in a lack of appreciation of 
the possibilities of the situation and a tendency to make 



316 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

all pupils conform to given methods and work toward 
a single end. 

Technical training is the first qualification for an in- 
structor and should be thorough and include not only 
advanced practice in drawing and painting and design, 
such as a complete course in a good art school furnishes, 
but also some experimental acquaintance with construc- 
tive processes in wood or metal. 

The high school teacher of art should also be familiar 
with the history of education in general, the place high 
schools occupy in the educational system, and the more 
important general problems of high school education: how 
they differ from those of elementary schools and also 
from those of colleges or of special schools, as, for ex- 
ample, of art schools. He should also know the history 
of his own subject, its place in education, and its relation 
to the life of the community. 

Especially should he be familiar with methods of edu- 
cational experimentation so that he may face his work 
as a scientific problem and investigate it in the light of 
results. In this way only can he add definitely to his 
knowledge of the ways in which ability to draw is most 
readily cultivated and made usable, and of the methods 
by which aesthetic appreciation is developed. 



CHAPTER XVII 
MUSIC IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

Charles Hubert Farnsworth 
professor of music, teachers college, columbia university 

"Education," as President Butler says, "should be a 
gradual adjustment to the spiritual possessions of the 
race," and a music course fails utterly if it does not give 
the student such an adjustment with reference to music, 
not only increasing his capacity for making music, but, 
even more important, heightening his enjoyment of what 
he hears, whether in the street or home, church or 
theatre. 

Music Courses in High Schools. — Music courses offered 
in high schools may be roughly grouped under three 
heads: 

i. General chorus work, to which one period a week 
is given, where the entire school unites, required of all, 
demanding no knowledge or skill, and for which no credit 
is given. 

2. A chorus period, supplemented by a class lesson, 
where some technical knowledge connected with sight 
singing, tone production, and interpretation is attempted. 
No standards of entrance requirements are demanded. 
The work leads to no credit and is generally compulsory. 

3. Elective courses in harmony, occasionally counter- 
point and musical history, tending sometimes toward 
appreciation, and voice study. 

317 



318 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

These classes are small in number, are conducted like 
ordinary school work, with requirements both for en- 
trance and promotion. The work is sometimes credited 
for college entrance, but more often it has recognition 
as one of the elective subjects. 

It will be seen from the above description that high 
school music is not in the true sense a study; it makes no 
demands for entrance, nor does it reach any definite 
goal. It is primarily a musical practice for the social 
and aesthetic benefit of the exercise. 

What Should the Course Be? — Let us consider what the 
musical course of a high school should be, classifying it 
under five varieties of musical activity. 

i. Chorus work — sight-singing. 

2. Appreciation courses. 

3. Elective courses in harmony, composition, form, and 
history. 

4. Glee and instrumental clubs. 

5. Private work done outside the school. 

First, there should be chorus work, generally known 
as sight-singing. Unlike the medium of poetry, musical 
beauty is expressed by sound-groupings, unique in this 
subject; hence the appreciation of the beauty of music 
is dependent upon the power of discriminating tone 
differences. This is primarily a mental act, depending 
largely upon a retentive tone memory. No form of ex- 
ercise so develops this power as the practice of singing 
from notation. For when this is done the student is 
forced to think tone relationships before he hears them, 
thus developing the power of forming a tonal image. 
This power is so important in musical development that 
in such great conservatories as that of Paris, all the in- 
strumental players as well as students of composition 



MUSIC 319 

are required to take exhaustive courses in sight-singing. 
Such a course does not in itself have aesthetic value, but 
as a means for sharpening the perceptive powers it is 
perhaps the most intensive work that can be done and 
should form the backbone of general musical training. 

Music Compared with Other Art Subjects. — Comparing 
music with the other subjects that have to do with train- 
ing in aesthetics, or the love of the beautiful, we find some- 
what similar conditions. The art training, because of 
the individual nature of the product of this activity, is 
better classified than is music, the advanced classes re- 
quiring a skill for which the earlier classes prepare. 
There is, however, a similarly anomalous condition with 
reference to credit, except in that form of the work 
which deals largely with mechanical drawing or direct 
copying, which has special value for science and technical 
work in terms of college entrance credits. The purely 
aesthetic function, however, is held in similar estimate 
to that of music. The individual product in design and 
pictures develops an ambition for individual effort on the 
part of the pupil that the collective work in music does 
not foster. Folk and aesthetic dancing connected with 
physical training have rich aesthetic possibilities which 
are seldom utilized. Only a few high schools as yet 
understand or concern themselves with anything beyond 
the health aspect of the work. 

We have, then, music, art, and physical training as the 
studies that have aesthetic training as a definite aim. 
This does not mean that aesthetic values are not recog- 
nized in literature, language, and even the sciences, but 
these subjects have other aims, that of aesthetic value 
being incidental and depending on the personality of 
the teacher. 



320 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

The Spirit of Modern Teaching Wrong. — If we con- 
sider the five categories, scientific, literary, aesthetic, in- 
stitutional, and religious that the child is entitled to, it 
will be seen that the training for the love of the beautiful 
holds a very large place in an ideal plan of education. 
When we compare this with the paucity in time, in teach- 
ing force, in worth given to the subjects by credits in 
units, or by insistence on preparation and work done, the 
discrepancy between the demand of the theorist and the 
result in actual practice becomes striking. If, further, 
we consider the spirit of the work the contrast becomes 
even stronger. " It becomes absolutely impossible for us 
any longer to identify education with mere acquisition 
of learning; and we begin to look upon it as really the 
vestibule of the highest and richest type of living, a 
gradual adjustment to the spiritual possessions of the 
race." * 

Are the languages, the sciences, and literature, practi- 
cally all that is studied of the above list, taught as a 
"vestibule of the highest and richest type of living"? 
Or are they taught as college entrance subjects, subjects 
that will provide discipline and can be measured? 

We have here the gist of the whole matter. We see why 
the aesthetic element is so crushed out of the ordinary 
subjects, and why, in those in which it is the main factor, 
as in music and art, the aesthetic stress itself is slurred, or 
else omitted, as of little account in any case. 

How the Teaching of Music May be Improved. — A 
radical improvement can be made in the teaching of 
music in high schools when a change can be brought 
about in the fundamental attitude with reference: 

i. To the value of the study of the beautiful. 

'Butler, N. M. "The Meaning of Education," pp. 16 and 17. 



MUSIC 321 

2. To that form of study which, instead of laying 
stress on formalism and mere discipline, puts it on interest 
and instinct for evaluating; puts emphasis not so much 
on the causal relations of what is studied as on the value 
to the individual. 

Prejudice against the Study of ./Esthetics. — The preju- 
dice of the educational world for those forms of study 
which are disciplinary in character and deal with the 
acquisition of facts, such as the languages, the sciences, 
and mathematics, is but a manifestation of a tendency 
of our whole social life. We look on serious work as 
dealing only with those subjects that are quantitatively 
causal and can be measured by what they do. We con- 
sider it worth while to study for a better pursuit of " Life 
and Liberty," but not of "Happiness." We do not 
consider those subjects whose value is in the immediate 
pleasure awakened as worthy of systematic training. So 
strong is this prejudice in our educational organization 
that even the teachers of art and music, in the degree to 
which they are talented and serious, attempt also in their 
work to treat their subjects as disciplines for acquiring 
a technic rather than exercises as affording an opportu- 
nity for that intimacy of possession which is the mark of 
aesthetic attainment. 

There is an evident tendency to misjudge such work. 
The thorough-going musician is apt to consider it the 
most important factor in music teaching; on the other 
hand, the schoolman who views music for its social and 
aesthetic value is impatient with work that is so technical 
in character, constantly preparing for the enjoyment of 
the beautiful, but rarely attaining it. It is because of 
this misjudgment that the work stands in such an anom- 
alous position in high school courses. 



322 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Standards of Musical Preparation. — One would nat- 
rurally think that such peculiarly technical work would 
require preparation in order to allow students to enter ad- 
vanced classes, and yet, the country over, there is hardly 
a school that would debar a student from entering a class 
in music because he was not prepared for it; if classified 
by other subjects, he would naturally enter it. The al- 
most universal lack of definite knowledge of music after 
eight years of work in the lower schools is a constant 
surprise to those who have investigated the subject; and 
yet this is not at all to be wondered at when we recall that 
the high school has no standards for musical acquisition. 
If the ability to sing is entirely lacking, at least the student 
should be able to explain the signs used. Students enter- 
ing without preparation should be required to make up 
the work. The subject should be treated as any other 
technical subject in this respect. There are many schools 
where music is not thoroughly taught, and for pupils 
from these schools the high school must make adjust- 
ments; but where music is adequately taught, at the end 
of the grammar school period, pupils should be able: 

I. To sing musically and with evident intelligence; 
that is, 

i. With artistic method, requiring such features as: 

(a) Agreeable tone, 



implying breath control. 

(b) Correct phrasing, j r J ° 

(c) Feeling for the spirit, tempo, and character of 
the song, implying practical knowledge of the common 
marks and terms by which these are suggested. 

2. With evidence of some acquaintance with good 
music, vocal and instrumental; because they have mem- 
orized a large number of song-gems and have associated 
with many selections the story of their origin. 



MUSIC 323 

II. To sing at sight and handle the rudiments of musi- 
cal structure; that is: 
i. With ability to read: 

(a) A part in a three or four-part tune, such as one 
by Dykes, Barnby, or Sullivan. 

(b) Eight-measure melodies. 

(c) All time-signatures, with the use of one, two, 
three, or four tones to the beat, unequally divided beats, 
and syncopation; and key-signatures, major and minor, 
with either the F-clef or the G-clef, and also the signs 
for chromatic tones. 

2. With ability to write in staff notation from dictation 
a simple melody, showing the power to analyze what is 
heard : 

(i) As to the union or division of beats, 

(2) As to the grouping of beats into measure-patterns, 
and, 

(3) As to the pitch-relationships in the key, major or 
minor. 

A full discussion of these standards may be seen in the 
"Proceedings of the Music Teachers' National Associa- 
tion for 1908." 

Chorus Work and Sight-Singing. — Two important 
things are developed by such work: 

(1) Tone thinking, and 

(2) A knowledge of notation which gives access to the 
literature of music. 

If the full aesthetic value of chorus singing is to be 
attained it is of the utmost importance that the music 
selected should be the gems of the art; and these should 
be memorized and so learned that they can be enjoyed 
after the student has left the school. Unfortunately, the 
desire to perform ambitious works, such as oratorio cho- 



324 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ruses, not only strains the voices by the extremes of pitch 
and power that such works generally demand, but after 
the student has left the school he is able to reproduce his 
pleasure only as he becomes a member of a chorus where 
such works are given. 

If, on the other hand, more attention is paid to unison 
songs, where associations can be made between the text 
and the melody, the student will have within his own 
power of reproduction beautiful works, thus adding 
to his racial inheritance in song the rich association 
of a joyous youth. 

Plan for Chorus Work. — The following plan is sug- 
gested with reference to chorus work. Let there be one 
gathering a week, covering one period, at which choruses 
and musical works prepared in the classes should have 
either a final presentation, or a dress rehearsal. This 
period should be considered not as a practice period, but 
as one of the social functions of the school, occasionally 
including speeches, addresses, and performances by ar- 
tists and visitors. This should be the hour for especially 
invited guests and friends of the school. Production at 
this time should furnish the much-needed motives for the 
work done in the organizations and classes. 

Supporting this hour should be a full period of practice 
each week, in sections small enough to have the individual 
work followed up. There should be a second hour for 
the first and second-year high school students, occupied 
primarily with practice in sight-singing and ear-training, 
going over the ground covered by the grammar grades 
and giving an opportunity for those who have had no 
music to get sufficient facility in the rudiments to take 
part intelligently in the choruses. 

Both the practice period supplementing the general 



MUSIC 325 

musical gathering and the extra hour of drill in sight- 
reading, required of the first and second year, should be 
conducted as we conduct any other subject, and receive 
similar credit. While there are some who cannot carry 
a tune, so there are some color-blind people. For such 
it may be necessary to make special adjustments, but in 
most cases the value of the work is sufficient to allow such 
few cases to go on with the class. These can certainly 
learn the few facts and principles which it is necessary to 
master in connection with sight-singing. The intellectual 
part even a stone-deaf person could learn in a few hours 
of serious study. 

The justification for requiring every one to undertake 
the sight-singing discipline lies in the fact that music is 
one of the most social of all arts. Through the voice 
every one can participate in an artistic production to an 
extent impossible in any other art. Music, more than 
any other form of aesthetics, is the art of our time. Also, 
it is the only art whose forms have no objective existence. 
The slight discipline in tone discrimination that sight- 
singing demands, as has already been insisted upon, 
finds rich compensation in the increased enjoyment made 
possible, and justifies the hours spent, the credits given, 
and the standards required, all of which is necessary to 
put the study on a serious educational basis. 

Appreciation Courses. — While sight-singing is of the 
utmost value in developing the power of tonal thought 
and gives acquaintance with songs, its outlook upon 
musical art is comparatively narrow. Few of the many 
works even of vocal art can be studied in the intensive 
way that the reproduction of them in chorus would de- 
mand. The broad field of instrumental music, besides 
large portions of the vocal art, never come within the 



326 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

horizon of the pupil, hence a second class of work is rec- 
ommended giving a less intensive, but much broader, 
view of music. Such courses are generally called appre- 
ciation courses, sometimes observation courses. It might 
be simpler and nearer the truth to call them acquaintance 
courses, the main object being to bring the students in 
touch with the master compositions of the art. Such 
work would have been almost impossible ten years ago 
unless the teacher were a brilliant player and singer, but 
with the wonderful advance in recent years in the means 
of reproducing music a whole new field of education has 
been opened to the music teacher. It would be absurd 
to say that because the pupil was not producing the music 
himself he was getting little value from listening to it. 
Our whole enjoyment of literature as an art (the art of 
individual reading having little to do with it) is similar 
to the enjoyment of music by means of something that 
produces it for us. Shakespeare, for example, does not 
have to be acted to be enjoyed. 

No adequate standards of this kind of work have been 
established as yet. Some dwell on the historic and hu- 
man connections of what is being heard, others go into 
the analysis of the form, but perhaps the most valuable 
for the general public and at the same time the simplest 
to manage so that a genuine aesthetic value shall result, is 
to have the students hear the works a sufficient number 
of times so that they will be able to whistle or hum the 
important themes. 

Importance of Knowing Musical "Motives." — As music 
is an organic creation, generally based upon a few striking 
motives, to learn these motives so thoroughly that they 
can be readily recognized and associated with the works 
to which they belong, would give the result to the student 



MUSIC 327 

in a nutshell, and would guarantee the most intelligent 
enjoyment when these works were heard from great or- 
chestras and choruses. Not that some attention, both 
as to human interest, form, and structure, should not 
accompany such work, but the pupil should be able, when 
asked if he knows the G-minor Fugue of Bach, to have 
naturally springing into his mind the rollicking theme, 
rather than the fact that the fugue has subject and 
counter-subject, stretto and pedal point. 

Plan for Appreciation Courses. — Such work demands 
a room with instruments for reproducing music both in- 
strumental and vocal, and a library of music, rolls, and 
discs; and a thorough organization of the students so 
that the room can be continuously used by small groups. 
The result of the time thus spent will enable one to 
whistle, to sing, and to recognize the principal themes 
of compositions. This will mean one hour a week of 
work tested and enriched by the teacher, and one hour of 
individual preparation by the pupil. In this work the 
teaching staff of the school can be largely utilized. In- 
deed, it will give them a most enjoyable opportunity of 
becoming acquainted both with good music and with their 
own pupils, through the joint effort to appreciate discrimi- 
natingly the beauties of masterpieces. The work when 
so accomplished should be credited as part of required 
aesthetic work for graduation. Similar work in any other 
art may be substituted where talent and taste indicate the 
wisdom of such elective principle. 

Mr. Edward B. Birge, in charge of the music in the 
Indianapolis schools, is introducing mechanical players 
into the grammar grades, and finds that they prove of 
value in stimulating knowledge and appreciation of music. 
Lying between the college and the grammar schools is the 



328 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

high school, where the pupils are at the age for the most 
effective cultivation of the aesthetic nature. 

The demand for one or two extra hours upon the al- 
ready overcrowded curriculum is justified by the fact 
that these hours are almost the only ones which are pri- 
marily and specifically concerned with introducing the 
student to the aesthetic inheritance of the race — surely one 
of the five great aims of education. 

Credits. — Credit for this work in melody memorizing, 
as well as for the course just preceding, in sight-singing, is 
justified by the fact that both of these activities can be ac- 
curately measured and the student's application noted. 
With some students we do the work with greater ease than 
with others, it is perfectly true, but this is so in other sub- 
jects. It may be granted that musical aptitude aids a stu- 
dent more than aptitude in other subjects, so that some 
judgment would have to be used in marking for diligence 
on the basis of accomplishment; but, again, is not this true 
also of other subjects? Music would simply require a 
little more care in this respect. Because both of these 
forms of study are thus measurable, they are not in them- 
selves aesthetic, and they should not be confused, as is so 
often done when the objection is made to music study, 
that it is not disciplinary and, therefore, not a credit sub- 
ject. The objectors are really thinking of purely aesthetic 
work, and they are right in this contention. On the other 
hand, when the music teacher declares that his work is 
as disciplinary as mathematics, he is also right, for he is 
talking about another aspect of the subject. 

While aesthetics is as difficult to teach directly as mor- 
als, both have to deal with our valuation of things. The 
courses indicated above can be made to minister to aes- 
thetic training if seriously treated. 



MUSIC 329 

Such comprehensive work in music is justified as well 
by college entrance requirements. A recent list of the 
colleges of New England, New York, and New Jersey, 
gives the following institutions as granting entrance 
credit for music: Amherst College, Barnard College, 
Boston University, Columbia University, Harvard Uni- 
versity, Mt. Holyoke, Radcliffe, Smith, and Tufts Col- 
leges. Such a representative number of eastern insti- 
tutions granting credit in music is significant. Of these 
colleges, four grant entrance credit for musical appreci- 
ation; Tufts, for example, not only gives lecture and 
recitation courses, but also has a well-equipped room 
with library and rolls, where the student, though not a 
performer, may familiarize himself with musical literature 
and thought. 

Courses in Harmony and Composition. — A third variety 
of musical work, which is required for college entrance 
by some of the more advanced institutions, can be given, 
consisting of elective courses in harmony, composition, 
form, and history — such courses being intended only for 
talented students doing intensive work. These offer little 
difficulty in their management or in assignable credit units. 

Musical Clubs. — A fourth variety of musical work, more 
important to the life of the school, consists in organiza- 
tions such as glee and instrumental clubs. Such work 
naturally attracts the more talented students, and, by 
giving them a power of expressing themselves, helps them 
to realize their own talents. In this way the school dis- 
covers and develops its musical leaders. At the same 
time organizations are of the utmost value in the concert 
and other social functions of the school, widening the 
possible range of music learned. While the exigency of 
the programme generally requires that such work be done 



330 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

outside of school hours, the serious study put into it 
should be dignified by some form of credit compensation 
demanding definite standards of application and at- 
tendance. 

Private Study Outside of School. — Finally, there is the 
fifth variety of musical activity which the school should 
recognize and utilize. This is the private work done 
outside. No small proportion of the pupils who enter 
the high school have spent a considerable time in system- 
atic piano study. This work has not only been seri- 
ously done, but at great expense of both time and money; 
and yet in many cases this is thrown away because the 
work cannot be carried on while the pupil is doing the 
required school work necessary to keep up his class 
standing. A break of four years in such technical prac- 
tice is sufficient to prevent most students from doing any 
further systematic playing. All that is needed is for the 
high school to recognize at least six hours' practice, with 
two lessons a week as equivalent to two hours' prepared 
work in any of the required subjects, such recognition 
being based on the talent and seriousness with which the 
work is being done. While the direct control of such 
work by the high school presents serious difficulties, the 
talent and accomplishment of students wishing such rec- 
ognition would be evident enough for school authori- 
ties to grant the credit if the principle were recognized. 
A serious injustice is done the pupil, and a stupid lack in 
the recognition of educational values is indicated by the 
present educational policy in secondary education. 

Temperament and Training of the Teacher. — The tem- 
perament and training of the teacher is of the utmost 
importance. He must not only have musical ability 
above the average, but he must also have a genuine love 



MUSIC 331 

for the beautiful, which does not always follow. He 
must have the power of tone discrimination, technical 
ability, and a broad educational training and human 
sympathy capable of relating the work to daily, practi- 
cal experience. The musician often fails in this because 
his world is such an isolated world of tone. While the 
college training may hinder a musician's technical abil- 
ity, it may add an element of culture and human sympa- 
thy, making it more worth while for him if he is to be- 
come a high school teacher of music. 

The teacher's ability to communicate his love and 
enthusiasm for the beautiful is the point upon which 
depends the aesthetic value of all that is done. If these 
qualities are not present, every form of work tends to be- 
come technical and formal, while if they are present the 
simplest scale may be made beautiful and expressive. 
It is the need of the times to find men who shall lead 
in pioneer work requiring such nice adjustment of per- 
sonal qualification and technical training, capable of 
guiding our youth into the spiritual inheritance of the 
race. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, WITH A 
SUGGESTED COURSE OF STUDY 

W. B. Arbaugh, A.M. 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN 

Need of Moral Culture in the Schools. — There is a 
steadily growing conviction that a larger element of 
moral culture should be combined with the intellectual 
training of the school. In recent years no other subject, 
save that of vocational training, has had more serious 
consideration in educational circles than the need of in- 
creased school efficiency in the development of character. 
A deepening appreciation of the distinctively purposive 
character of the school explains, in part, this conscious- 
ness of its moral responsibility. Furthermore, the school 
has not remained uninfluenced by the marvellous moral 
awakening of recent years, the distinctive note of which 
is its demand for a return to the fundamental virtues in 
all the relationships of life. 

Importance of Moral Training in Modern Life. — In the 
modern industrial and social order new and strange situ- 
ations, calling for fine discrimination and quick decision, 
crowd upon the individual at every turn. Old and once 
familiar principles are with difficulty recognized in the 
complexity of their new setting. The spectacle of moral 
breakdown under present-day stress and strain has 

332 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 333 

caused thinkers everywhere to analyze the situation care- 
fully with a view to ascertaining in just what way a 
system of ideals and values may be made effective in 
modern life. In view of the essentially practical trend 
of education at the present time, there is grave danger 
of over-stressing the idea of productive efficiency in an 
industrial order, unless, at the same time, character be 
strengthened and fortified through a living knowledge 
of fundamental moral and ethical principles. Indeed, 
it is always to be kept in mind that, while the truly 
efficient man will also be moral, there is a kind of effi- 
ciency which lacks the essentials of morality. 

Moral Element in Education Needs Emphasizing. — 
For a quarter of a century the intellectual element in 
courses of study, while not necessarily overemphasized, 
has been greatly stressed. During this same period 
there has been no corresponding emphasis upon either 
the moral purpose of the school or the ethical content 
of the subject-matter of the curriculum. There is a 
belief, often openly and confidently expressed, that the 
learner will, unaided, extract from this subject-matter 
whatever of spiritual truth and moral worth it may have 
for him. It may be noted here that this is the attitude 
of those who are opposed to the "pointing of morals." 
Conviction, strength of character, and rare good judg- 
ment are required in the teacher who, when occasion 
offers, would speak out before young people in no un- 
certain terms upon the great questions and vital issues 
of life. The teacher who can thus speak is a power in 
moulding positive traits of character in the lives of his 
students. On the other hand, in the effort to avoid the 
appearance of "preaching," the teacher may cause the 
moral significance of what he is presenting in a lesson 



334 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to be underestimated or overlooked by the student, who 
inevitably assumes the attitude of the teacher or the text- 
book. 

Some Aspects of the General Problem. — While this 
chapter is meant to be constructive rather than critical, 
such aspects of the general problem as are important in 
their bearing upon later discussion must be mentioned. 
For this reason it is pertinent to note the decline of certain 
influences which in the past contributed to the inculcation 
of fundamental qualities of character. 

First, is the home. In the rush and hurry of modern 
life, many of the simple, essential virtues once fostered by 
the life in the best homes are in danger of being lost. One 
does not need to describe nor even to enumerate the con- 
ditions that interfere with what is called "home training." 
The difficulty which well-meaning parents have in de- 
vising tasks to fix a sense of responsibility in children, 
and the interests, attractions, and activities outside the 
home, which make their appeal to parents as well as to 
children, suggest phases of the situation both disturbing 
and perplexing. Nor are all these things compensated 
for by the broader ethical ideal and active altruism which 
result from the world-unifying influences of modern in- 
ventions and industry. 

Again, the attitude not only of the public, but often of 
the teacher and the school, toward the school use of the 
Bible and simple Bible truths, marks a decline in the 
wholesome attitude of an earlier day. 1 It may be that 
the use of the Bible in our democratic public school is 

1 The recent introduction of the Old Testament narrative in the Col- 
lege Entrance Requirements in English is not to be understood as mark- 
ing a return to Bible study in the school. The Bible text is to be read 
as literature, and any attempt to enlarge upon or explain its religious 
teachings would, in most places, be barred. 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 335 

not practicable. This would seem to be so unless con- 
stitutional restraint be removed. However, because the 
teaching of religion, in the sense of instruction in dogma, 
is forbidden, all reference to a higher life and such subjects 
as God and immortality is too often omitted by teachers 
in the course of other instruction. As to the effect of 
such an attitude, one writer 1 says: 

"Silence regarding an issue is, in fact, often the surest 
way of throwing influence in favor of a negative solution 
of it. . . . Religion or irreligion is present in the schools 
just as surely as teachers are present. ... In the regu- 
lation of conduct; in the study of literature, biography, 
history, and nature; by incidental reference here and 
there, especially as all these are reinforced by the teacher's 
own tone and manner of life, it is easy to make the child 
realize that the school respects that which his parents 
and his church hold most dear. Without at least thus 
much religion in the school, we cultivate a divided self 
in the pupil. He lives in several different worlds, be- 
tween which he experiences no unity. . . .The primary 
necessity, then, is that the school should take religion for 
granted." 

One cannot enter here into a full discussion of the 
subject of religious education and training. However, 
the vital relationship not only between religion and 
morality, but between these and other factors in educa- 
tion, cannot be ignored. Nothing could be more impor- 
tant in educational practice than the recognition of the 
essential unity which these factors constitute and which 
makes the terms, "religious," "moral," "vocational," 
etc., inapplicable and needless. The fallacy underlying 
a dissociation in theory and the necessity following their 

1 Coe, G. A., "Education in Religion and Morals," pp. 352 ff. 



336 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

separation in practice have recently been stated as fol- 
lows: 

"In the English-speaking world, secular education 
became popular through a misunderstanding. Most of 
those who advocated it imagined education to be a 
faggot of different ' subjects,' out of which you could pull 
the stick called 'religion' without any serious loss of 
kindling for the fire. ... If you leave religion out of the 
work of a school, you have to find some substitute for it. 
A school is not a purely intellectual workshop. It is a 
community in which the emotions are stirred, the imagi- 
nation quickened, ideals of life imparted. . . . Expe- 
rience has shown that a school must address itself to the 
task of influencing conduct and shaping character. In 
order to do this it must have a philosophy, implicit in 
its influence, explicit in its course of instruction." * 

In the preceding paragraphs the problem could be 
stated only in its main outlines. In nothing that has been 
said, however, is it implied that the whole task of char- 
acter formation is to be assumed by the school. Indeed, 
the magnitude of the intellectual task imposed upon the 
school makes this impossible. Yet with all that may 
be accomplished through other agencies, there remains 
much which can best be achieved through this means. 
What is needed is a more profound appreciation of 
the moral duty of the school, and a full recognition 
of its character as a socializing agency. Through the 
school mainly can the individual be expected to arrive 
at anything like an adequate understanding of the sig- 
nificance of the larger relations of mature life. The im- 
portance of this can hardly be overestimated, for "social 

1 Sadler, M. E., "High Church Men and the Crisis in English Educa- 
tion," Contemporary Review, 98 : 257. 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 337 

knowledge is the basis of morality." "We live in a 
system, and to achieve right ends, or any rational ends 
whatever, we must learn to understand that system." ' 

Methods of Instruction. — The general agreement upon 
the necessity of increased attention to the moral element 
in education has already been noted. Most of the dis- 
cussion of recent years has centred about the question of 
method. The terms, direct and indirect, as applied to 
instruction in morals and ethics need little explanation. 
The former implies the use of precept, the study of the 
principles of right action, and the examination of motives 
and ideals in conduct. The latter, sometimes called the 
incidental method, has reference to the use of the organi- 
zation and the activities of the school, and of the moral 
and ethical implications of the regular school subjects. 
Specifically, the former aims at supplying moral concep- 
tions and insight; the latter adds to incidental instruction 
training, in the sense of formation of right habits. 

To the method of direct instruction many objections 
are offered. It has been suggested, for example, that 
morality is not a matter of knowledge, but rather of 
habits formed during growth and adjustment "in some 
sort of moral world." 2 Again, it is argued, weakness of 
will, which no amount of instruction in ideals of conduct 
can strengthen, is at the bottom of much wrong-doing. 
There is further objection on the ground that such in- 
struction easily degenerates into "moralizing," which 
either passes over the head of the pupil or palls upon him, 
leaving no results in conduct. Still other objections are 
based on the ground of the danger of morbidness and 

1 Cooley, C. H., "Social Organization," p. 21. See, also, Chancellor, 
W. E., "Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education," pp. 27 ff. 

2 Palmer, G. H., "Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools," p. 9. 



338 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

moral precocity, which might result from too early ex- 
amination and criticism, on the part of the pupil, of his 
own conduct and that of others. 

On the other hand, those who favor making use of 
direct instruction, while not opposing the use of incidental 
means, regard the latter as inadequate and, at best, as too 
likely to be neglected in the regular work of the school. 
It is urged that present-day moral laxity is due in part to 
the school's neglect of instruction in morals, and that if 
right ideals of personal conduct are to have influence in 
maturity there must be conscious and unremitting effort 
to establish these early in life. A further argument in 
favor of direct instruction is adduced from the thought- 
lessness or ignorance to which much wrong conduct is 
due. A cure for this, it is believed, will be found in the 
quickening, through instruction, of moral insight or per- 
ception. 1 

In this question of method there is much confusion in 
the use of terms. Most of those who oppose direct 
instruction have in mind such extreme formalism as 
characterizes the classic illustration from the Emile. It 
need hardly be said that no one could be found so devoid 
of reason and judgment as to practice or defend such 
procedure. On the other hand, the number of those who 
believe in rational, systematic instruction in questions 
of social relationships is increasing. Fortunately, while 
the distinction between the two methods may be clearly 
drawn in theory, practice need not be confined to either 
method exclusively. The true teacher will have such a 

1 An excellent brief statement of the pros and cons of direct moral 
instruction is to be found in "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools: 
Report of an International Inquiry," edited by M. E. Sadler, vol. I, 
chaps. II-VI. Chap. II presents in concise form, also, some of the 
scientific aspects of the whole subject. 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 339 

conception of his work as will enable him to use wisely 
whichever one occasions demand. " Every man in every 
work needs some such controlling idea under which all 
details of method can be harmonized. It keeps the large- 
ness of a man's labor. It saves him from the danger 
of first thinking there is only one way to do his work, 
and then narrowing his work to the possibilities of that 
single method." x 

Passing from general aspects of the subject in its re- 
lation to schools of any grade, we may now deal directly 
with the high school, and especially with methods of 
procedure there. Much importance has always been 
attached to the moralizing effect of the organization and 
work, and the life and interests of the school, and to the 
personality of teachers. It is doubtful, indeed, whether 
there has been full recognition of the moral value of these 
agencies. In actual practice there is too little conscious 
effort to utilize them to the best advantage. The test 
of the teacher's fitness has in the past been measured too 
largely by his scholastic attainments or his ability to pre- 
pare students to pass examinations. Furthermore, the 
life and interests of the modern high school are in them- 
selves complex, and easily become demoralizing influ- 
ences if left to themselves, as is likely to be the case 
under present conditions. 2 It is clear that there should 
be "a better utilization of incidental means for training 

1 Phillips Brooks, "Essays and Addresses," p. 41. 

2 As an example, note the practice, sometimes resorted to by salesmen, 
of gratuitously supplying pins or invitations for the personal use of those 
who have in charge the purchase of these articles. This is the beginning 
of "graft " or "rake-off." The insidious manner in which such tempta- 
tions come makes them all the more dangerous, while the practice itself 
is opposed to the idea of service, which should permeate all life as well 
as the instruction of the school. Those familiar with social activities 
and athletics in the high school know of many such antimoral practices. 



340 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

in character. Through the activities of a well-regulated 
school, habits of response to moral situations, a sense 
of responsibility, and an appreciation of the meaning 
of social interdependence should be acquired naturally. 
Too much emphasis cannot be put upon the school as a 
social institution in which preparation for life is taking 
place through all of its actual, concrete relations and 
activities. 1 

In this brief consideration of incidental means the 
term, training, was purposely used to refer to habits of re- 
sponse and conduct, which these means cultivate. There 
is, however, a conviction, well-founded, that indirect train- 
ing is inadequate, that the results are unsatisfactory. 
This conviction is expressing itself in a demand that the 
high school shall give also specific instruction in moral 
matters. This need not be rigidly interpreted as instruc- 
tion in ethics, although this, as will appear later, may well 
have a place in adolescent education. Much material 
already in the curriculum is rich in ideas which have great 
moral value for instruction in social and civic questions. 
That this material should be so used, it is necessary 
merely to call attention to the need to-day of such intel- 
ligence and conscience in civic matters as will lead the 
individual to think as highly of public duty as of private 
right. Again, the innate ambition of youth should be 
utilized in establishing standards by which to measure 
success, in giving counsel and guidance in the choice of 
life vocations, and in instilling ideas of social obligation. 

There is a further reason for specific instruction in the 
principles of right conduct. Training, which is the result 
of participation in the life, not only of the school, but 

1 Cf. Dewey, "Moral Principles in Education," pp. 5 ff. Also Hen- 
derson, "A Text-Book in the Principles of Education," pp. 412-414. 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 341 

of the larger life outside the school, manifests itself in 
habits and characteristic attitudes. These, however, do 
not function unless a stimulus is present, and, in conditions 
that are constantly changing, the original stimulus may 
be lost. Hence, "morality is not all habit and emotion. 
Conscientious conduct implies not only doing the right 
thing when we know it, but finding out the right thing to 
do. Conduct that is mere habit is not real moral con- 
duct; 'Good habits' need constant revision for growing 
persons and changing society." 1 

Knowledge, also, would thus appear to be a requisite 
for genuine moral conduct. Even this without the ele- 
ment of will is not a guarantee of right action. 2 But, 
assuming the importance of will, it must be said that 
knowledge has a large place. So, in addition to instruc- 
tion in morals more or less indirectly through other sub- 
jects, instruction in elementary ethics as the science of 
right action should be undertaken by the high school. 
The complexity of modern life often makes not only 
apprehension of moral truth but discernment of moral 
obliquity difficult. Actual confusion and perplexity is 
thus responsible for much wrong-doing. Most of such 
instruction should, doubtless, be deferred to the last high 
school year, although teachers should never hesitate to 
state clearly the conditions of ethical situations as they 
arise. Before students leave the high school, they have 
reached the period of later adolescence, when instinct 
and habit have risen to the higher level of reflective life. 
At this time examination of some of the standards and 
ideals which society has established for its members may 

1 Tufts, J. H., "Is There a Place for Moral Instruction?", editorial in 
The School Review, 16 : 476. 

2 Cf. Home, H. H., "Idealism in Education," p. 137. 



342 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

well be made. Such specific instruction should be skil- 
fully and tactfully given. There should be regular 
weekly recitations throughout the year, or daily recitations 
for a term, preferably toward the end of the year. This 
would seem to be sufficient time for the presentation of 
such material as is available. Because there are yet no 
text-books well adapted to the purpose, the subject will 
have to be presented orally by the teacher. There are, 
however, a few books of merit which may be used as 
parallel reading. 1 A compilation of ethical readings 
of acknowledged merit compiled from modern sources 
would serve a useful purpose in further supplementing 
instruction. In the absence of such a compilation, per- 
sonal guidance in reading selected portions from ethical 
literature will be found practicable. Reports by students 
upon assigned topics can be discussed, the discussion 
being wisely directed by the teacher so that definite con- 
clusions and principles may be reached. Further diffi- 
culty will be met in finding, in the regular corps, a teacher 
fitted in temperament, training, and experience to give 
such instruction. Here the necessity of specific prepara- 
tion of teachers for this work is evident. But limita- 
tions should not stand in the way of our doing whatever 
may be practicable. It has been shown that moral en- 
lightenment presents a legitimate field for high school in- 
struction. There should be an end of abstract discus- 
sion as to its feasibility. The first steps may be halting; 
a body of principles will have to be worked out, and this 
can be done only through experimentation and practice. 
Programme of Study. — A proposal for moral and ethi- 
cal instruction is given below as a tentative programme 

1 Probably the best attempt in the direction of a text-book is J. N. 
Larned's "A Primer of Right and Wrong." 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 343 

of study. Related topics, not previously mentioned in 
the discussion, are included. Further topics and sugges- 
tions will be found in several of the titles mentioned in 
the bibliography at the end of the book. Much of the 
work suggested may be carried on incidentally through 
such subjects as history and English composition. A full 
recitation period once or twice a week may be allotted to 
elementary civics, elementary ethics, and related topics. 

FIRST YEAR. — A. Service. (Instruction through assigned read- 
ings, discussion, and composition.) 
i. Public Service. 

a. The fight against disease. 

b. The fight for pure food. 

c. The fight for clean streets and better dwellings. 

2. Service through Vocation. 

a. Value of a deliberate choice of life vocation. 

b. Danger of too early choice. 

c. Essential qualities demanded by various vocations. 

d. Contributing service through vocation. 

3. Service a Measure of Success. 

a. Conditions and meaning of success. 

b. Biographies of successful men and women. 

B. Obligation. (Instruction through assigned readings, discus- 
sion, and composition.) 

1. Of the individual and of society to the past, especially 

to writers and inventors and to pioneers in educa- 
tion and industry. 

2. Of the student to the community and the State. 

SECOND YEAR— A. Elementary Civics. 

1. The community and community life. 

2. The family and the community. 

3. The individual and the family. 

4. The individual and public health. 

5. The duty of social and public service. Why the indi- 

vidual should be interested in 



344 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

a. Public schools. 

b. The slums. 

c. Social settlement. 

d. Public charities. 

e. The church. 

B. Studies in Present-day Moral Leadership. (See Bibliography. 
Accounts of the work of social and political reformers and 
leaders to be found in magazines and reviews of the past 
few years will also furnish material.) 



THIRD YEAR— A. Universal Peace, 
i. National interdependence. 

2. Arbitration — national and industrial. 

3. Youth, the schools, and peace. 

B. Modern Justice. 

1. Newer methods — juvenile courts, etc. 

2. The prevention of crime. 

3. Modern philanthropic movements. 

C. Studies in Moral Leadership. (Selected biographies.) 



FOURTH YEAR— A. Instruction in Ethics, and Ethical Read- 
ings. (See suggestions already given, page 342.) 

B. Discussion of Ethical Questions. 

1. The ethics of modern business. 

2. Integrity as an asset in business. 

3. Courtesy in business. 

4. Employer and employee. 

(A number of concrete ethical situations may be gath- 
ered from men and women in actual business and 
professional life. Better still will be the questions 
that arise in the life of the school. These should be 
frankly and fairly discussed, and the principles in- 
volved clearly set forth.) 

C. Studies in the Choosing of a Vocation. 

1. Review of Service through Vocation and Service a Meas- 
ure of Success under outline for first year. 



MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 345 

2. Study of local vocations with talks by professional and 

business men. 

3. Study of local opportunities — educational and voca- 

tional. 
D. Introduction to the Study of Society. 

1 . The structure of society. 

2. Social interdependence. 



CHAPTER XIX 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

Charles Scott Berry, Ph.D. 
assistant professor of education, university of michigan 

Present-Day Interest in Physical Education.— The phys- 
ical man, admired by the Greek because of his grace 
and beauty, despised by the Christian because of his 
worldly desires, is welcomed by the present as having 
worth in himself, and as being an indispensable means 
for attaining the aesthetic, intellectual, and spiritual de- 
velopment to which our own age aspires. The doctrine 
of evolution showing the intimate relation that exists be- 
tween physical and mental development, and indicative 
of the broadening of the narrow religious conceptions 
which dominated the past, are two of the factors which 
have led to the reawakening of the physical conscience. 
And this reawakening is shown by the rise and develop- 
ment of preventive medicine and the revival of interest 
in physical education. Of the sciences which have so 
rapidly developed since the acceptance of the theory of 
evolution, physiology and hygiene are the ones most im- 
portant in the preservation and improvement of health; 
for without health the highest intellectual and moral de- 
velopment cannot be attained. 

" We infer that as vigorous health and its accompanying 
high spirits are larger elements of happiness than any 
other things whatever, the teaching how to maintain 

346 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 347 

them is a teaching that yields in moment to no other 
whatever. And, therefore, we assert that such a course 
of physiology as is needful for the comprehension of its 
general truths, and their bearings on daily conduct, is 
an all-essential part of a rational education." 1 

Physiology and Hygiene in the High School Curricu- 
lum. — With this conception of the educational impor- 
tance of physiology and hygiene let us turn to the discus- 
sion of their place and function in the curriculum of the 
high school. The character of any course offered in the 
high school will be determined largely by the nature and 
extent of the instruction given in that subject in the 
grades. Hence, the importance of a brief review of the 
teaching of physiology and hygiene in the grades to 
determine not only how it has been taught, but how this 
instruction is being modified by the rise and develop- 
ment of preventive medicine and physical education. 

Beginning of Movement. — The propaganda for the 
teaching of physiology and hygiene in the public schools 
began in 1879 when Mrs. Mary H. Hunt presented to 
the National Convention of the Woman's Christian Tem- 
perance Union a plan for thorough text-book study of 
"scientific temperance" in the public schools, as a 
means of preventing intemperance. The character of the 
movement is shown by the following quotation from one 
of the publications of the Woman's Christian Temperance 
Union : 

"This is not a physiological, but a temperance move- 
ment. In all grades below the high school this instruc- 
tion should contain only physiology enough to make the 
hygiene of temperance and other laws of health intelligi- 
ble. Temperance should be the chief and not the sub- 

1 Spencer, Herbert, "Education," p. 27. 



348 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ordinate topic and should occupy at least one-fourth the 
space in text-books for these grades." 1 

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union aroused 
so much interest in this movement that by 1900 nearly 
all the States in the Union had enacted laws requiring 
instruction in physiology and hygiene, with especial 
reference to the nature of alcohol and narcotics and 
their effect upon the human system, to be given in the 
public schools. More than thirty years have passed 
since the beginning of the agitation for the teaching of 
physiology and hygiene in the public schools from the 
stand-point of the evil effects of narcotics and stimulants, 
and to-day the consensus of opinion seems to be that this 
instruction in physiology and hygiene has not been a 
success. 

Reasons for Failure. — The reasons for the failure of a 
movement which promised so much are well worth con- 
sidering. Richard C. Cabot points out that the teach- 
ing of physiology and hygiene in the public schools has 
accomplished so little: 

"1. Because some of it is demonstrably false, and 
much more of it is not demonstrably true. 2. Because it 
has been presented not as a fact, but as preaching. 3. 
Because the individual factors, the differences that make 
one man's meat and another man's poison, have been 
largely ignored. 4. Because of a misplaced emphasis 
on single organs or functions, rather than on the live 
interests of the child, in relation to which the health of 
single organs gets its value." 2 The Committee of the 

1 Billings, John S., " Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem," 
1903, vol. I, p. 23. 

2 Cabot, Richard C, "The Teaching of Hygiene," "Proceedings of the 
First, Second, and Third Congresses of the American School Hygiene 
Association," 1910, p. 201. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 349 

New York State Science Teacher's Association 1 found 
that some of the reasons why the teaching of physiology 
and hygiene was not more effective in the schools of New 
York State were, the dominance of the instruction by 
legislative enactment, the frequent and unnecessary rep- 
etition of the instruction in the various grades, and the 
too early use of text-books. Some additional reasons cited 
by Wood 2 to account for the unsuccessful teaching of hygi- 
ene in the schools are, that the teachers themselves are 
frequently wanting in habits of hygienic living, that they 
do not possess the practical and scientific knowledge 
necessary to present this subject in an effective way, that 
the instruction has been too theoretical, that too much 
attention has been given to personal, and not enough to 
social hygiene, that too much emphasis has been placed 
on disease and not enough on health, and that the text- 
books contain too much anatomy and physiology and 
not enough sanitation, bacteriology, and industrial and 
social hygiene. 

But the fundamental reason why the teaching of hygiene 
and physiology has been so unsuccessful in the grades 
is that we have signally failed to recognize: first, that 
right living or the formation of hygienic habits should 
precede the understanding of the scientific reasons for the 
formation of such habits; and, second, that instruction 
to be effective must be positive, not negative. The neg- 
lect of the first of these two fundamental principles has 
caused us to emphasize theory instead of practice. We 
have sought to give the child a knowledge of physiology 

'"School Instruction in the Effects of Stimulants and Narcotics," 
Educational Review, vol. XXIV, 1902, p. 45. 

2 Wood, T. D., "The Ninth Year-Book of the National Society for 
the Study of Education," Part I, "Health and Education," 1910, p. 63. 



350 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and hygiene, forgetting that the Socratic maxim that 
knowledge is virtue holds only when habits of right living 
have already been formed. The neglect of the second 
fundamental principle is most apparent in the so-called 
temperance instruction. In this instruction we have for- 
gotten that every idea tends to express itself in action, 
and instead of teaching the child, who is naturally active, 
what he should do we have, instead, spent much time and 
energy in teaching him what he should not do. The in- 
struction has been negative in its nature, and, as one 
might expect, largely negative in its results. 

Present Status of Subject. — After this brief review of 
the teaching of physiology and hygiene in the grades, let 
us now attempt to determine the existing status of these 
subjects in the high school. Gulick's 1 investigation 
shows that only sixteen per cent of two thousand three 
hundred ninety-two public schools in the United States 
are giving regular instruction in hygiene. Crosby sent a 
questionnaire 2 to seventy high school principals of Iowa. 
Among the questions asked was the following one: 

"Do your pupils like physiology as well as they like 
other laboratory sciences?" Of those who answered the 
question only twenty-seven per cent replied "Yes"; 
seventy-three per cent said "No." 

In discussing the teaching of physiology in the high 
school Crosby points out that "the method of presenta- 
tion is the same as that in the grades, whereas an en- 
tirely new method of approach is desirable. As far as 

1 Gulick, L. H., "Status of Physical Education in Ninety Public Nor- 
mal Schools and Two Thousand Three Hundred and Ninety-two Public 
High Schools in the United States," "Proceedings of the Fourth Con- 
gress of the American School Hygiene Association," 1910, p. 175. 

2 Crosby, Clifford, "Physiology, How and How Much?" School 
Science and Mathematics, vol. VII, 1907, p. 738. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 351 

my knowledge of the matter goes teachers are doing the 
physiology work in the grades in about the same way 
that it is done in the high school. The same threadbare 
experiments are performed, and the same demonstra- 
tions are made, the point of view remaining the same in 
all grades. Owing to the fact that this process has been 
going on through several grades, the pupils as a rule are 
tired of the subject and have little respect for what they 
have learned." 

Crosby found that fifty-two per cent of the schools 
which answered his questionnaire offered physiology be- 
fore either botany or zoology, and that physiology was 
taught during the first year in fifty per cent of the cases 
reported. A more extended investigation, by Hunter, 1 
of the teaching of biologic science in the secondary schools 
of the United States brings to light the fact that of one 
hundred and ninety-three high schools offering physi- 
ology and hygiene fifty-four per cent of them teach these 
subjects in the first year, eighteen per cent in the second 
year, eleven per cent in the third year, and seventeen per 
cent in the fourth year. In some States the law requires 
the teaching of physiology and hygiene in the first year 
of the high school. This accounts, to some extent, for the 
high percentage of schools offering these subjects in the 
first year of the high school course. For in Massachu- 
setts, where the law does not specify in which year of the 
high school physiology is to be taught, of the forty high 
schools replying to the questionnaire ten teach it in the 
first year, five in the second, twelve in the third, and 
thirteen in the fourth. These and other investigations 

'Hunter, G. W., "The Methods, Content, and Purpose of Biologic 
Science in the Secondary Schools of the United States," School Science 
and Mathematics, vol. X, 1910, p. 3. 



352 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

show: first, that the majority of the high schools are not 
even offering any systematic instruction in physiology 
and hygiene; second, that in more than half of the schools 
where the subject is taught it comes in the first year of 
the high school course, before the pupils have had either 
biology, chemistry, or physics; third, that it is taught 
in about the same way as in the grades; and, fourth, 
that the results are generally unsatisfactory. 

However, the situation is not quite so hopeless as it 
appears to be, because there are, at the present time, 
certain factors which are slowly changing, and are bound 
to transform the teaching of hygiene and physiology not 
only in the grades, but in the high school as well. These 
factors are medical inspection and physical education. 

Medical Inspection. — From the discovery of the bacil- 
lus of tuberculosis in 1882 the watchword of the medical 
profession has been the prevention of disease. To pro- 
tect the child and the community medical inspection for 
the detection of infectious and contagious diseases was 
begun in the schools of New York City in 1892. Since 
that time the movement has spread rapidly, until now 
most of our large cities have medical inspection. At 
first this work was under the control and direction of the 
Board of Health. The teacher had nothing more to do 
than to report the cases that appeared to be in need of 
medical attention. But with the extension of medical 
inspection to include examinations for the detection of 
non-contagious defects the school board and the teacher 
were required to play a more active part. The examina- 
tions of school children at home and abroad show that 
from twenty to thirty per cent of the school children have 
defective eyesight, that over fifty per cent are suffering 
from defective teeth, that over five per cent have defec- 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 353 

tive hearing, and that large numbers are suffering from 
mal-nutrition, adenoids, and other defects. As a result 
of the publication of these facts relating to the physical 
condition of the school child, much interest has been 
aroused in making the conditions of school life more hygi- 
enic, in seeing that the school-rooms are properly lighted, 
heated, and ventilated, and in instructing the child in 
hygienic ways of living. 

Revival of Interest in Physical Education. — The other 
factor which is arousing the interest of the teacher in the 
physical welfare of the school child is the revival of in- 
terest in physical education, as is shown by the remark- 
able growth of athletics and gymnastics in the colleges, 
secondary schools, and Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tions, and by the phenomenal spread of the playground 
movement. The attendance at the gymnasia and ath- 
letic fields of the Y. M. C. A. has increased over three 
hundred per cent during the past ten years, 1 and during 
the same period of time Mero 2 estimates that about 
fifty millions of dollars have been spent in the purchase, 
equipment, and maintenance of playgrounds in the 
United States. In fact, the playground has proved to be 
such an important factor in bettering the physical con- 
dition of the children in the poorer districts of the large 
cities that Massachusetts and Virginia have enacted laws 
making provision for the establishment of playgrounds 
in all cities of more than ten thousand inhabitants. 

These two aspects of the movement for physical wel- 
fare — medical inspection and physical education — are 
causing the teacher to see that the mental and moral 

'"Year-Books of the Young Men's Christian Associations of North 
America" for 1899 and 1908—9. 

2 Mero, "American Playgrounds," 1908, p. 20. 



354 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

development of the child is closely bound up with his 
physical welfare. As a result, more interest is being 
manifested in the physical well-being of the school child 
to-day than ever before in the history of modern educa- 
tion. 

Present Methods of Organization. — That medical in- 
spection and physical education are beginning to vitalize 
the teaching of physiology and hygiene is very evident 
when we consider what is now being done in some of the 
large cities. In 1907, the School Committee of Boston 
voted to create a department of school hygiene. The 
whole department was placed under the control of one 
director, who has general supervision over all matters af- 
fecting the physical welfare of the pupils and teachers. 
This director has control of medical inspection (except that 
under the supervision of the board of health), a corps of 
trained nurses, the teaching of physiology and hygiene 
in the grades, the teaching of gymnastics, playground in- 
struction, and athletic training of all kinds, both in the 
elementary and in the secondary schools. 1 St. Louis 
has recently established a department of school hygiene, 
and Superintendent Maxwell is using all of his influence 
to have such a department established in the schools of 
New York City. The department of physical training in 
the latter city is attempting to arouse the interest of the 
child in his physical well-being by giving a certain amount 
of credit, not only for proficiency in athletics and gymnas- 
tics, but also for the formation of hygienic habits. Ward 
Crampton, M.D., director of physical education in the 
public schools of New York City, says: 

"Instruction should be related to the constantly re- 
curring incidents of daily life, rather than to the structure 

1 "Annual Report of School Committee of Boston," 1908. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 355 

of the body, for the child concerns itself with the doing 
of things rather than with its own bodily composition. 
Instruction should be practical rather than theoretical, 
and should be taken from experience rather than from a 
book. . . . All pupils should be examined in hygiene 
and marked thereon for promotion. By this I do not 
mean the ability of the pupil to write down a number of 
bones in the body or the function of the bile — I mean a 
mark in practical hygiene; the mark that the hygiene 
authority and instruction of the school have left upon 
the physical being of the student." x 

Here we see that in the teaching of physiology and 
hygiene in the grades the emphasis is placed on the for- 
mation of habits of hygienic living and not on the expla- 
nation of the scientific reasons for the formation of such 
habits. It is true that the teacher explains to the child 
the importance of forming habits of hygienic living. 
But these explanations must necessarily be adapted to 
the understanding and experience of the child, and that 
means that the scientific reasons cannot successfully be 
given at this stage of the child's development. We have 
tried that for many years in teaching the facts of anatomy 
and physiology as a basis for the instruction in hygiene. 
The result has been that we have succeeded in getting 
the child neither to form hygienic habits nor to under- 
stand the importance of forming such habits. 

" We have assumed that one must know the structure of 
the organ, then its function, before one can be in a posi- 
tion to properly care for it. This implies a capacity for 
learning and an ability to reason far beyond the powers 

'Crampton, Ward, "The Teaching of Hygiene." "Proceedings of 
the Fourth Congress of American School Hygiene Association, 1910," 
p. 138. 



356 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of our pre-adolescent school population. It implies also 
an ability to act in accordance with the results of mature 
consideration which is obviously lacking." x 

But it is not enough to form hygienic habits, important 
as that is; the youth must know the scientific reasons 
for the formation of such habits if these habits are to be 
made permanent in an environment unfavorable to their 
continuance, and if the youth is to become an active agent 
in the war against unsanitary conditions. This means 
that instruction in physiology and hygiene should be 
given in the high school as well as in the grades. And this 
is all the more evident when we consider the remarkable 
increase in the number of colleges and universities which 
have recently introduced hygiene into their courses of 
study. 

"In 1884 hygiene was taught in 28, or 60.9 per cent, of 
46 leading colleges. In 1909, hygiene was taught in 97, 
or 83.6 per cent, of 116 leading colleges. The most re- 
markable development of recent years is the placing of 
hygiene in the regular curriculum as a prescribed subject. 
Hygiene was prescribed in 47 colleges in 19 10. Before 
1890 only 6 colleges, or 12.8 per cent, prescribed hygiene. 
From 1890 to 1900, 10 colleges, or 21.3 per cent, pre- 
scribed hygiene. From 1900 to 1910, 31 colleges, or 
63.9 per cent, prescribed hygiene. The fact that nearly 
80 per cent of the colleges offering regular courses in 
hygiene give positive credit toward the bachelor's degree 
for these courses, is further proof that hygiene is now 
considered an important branch of education." 2 

1 Ibid., p. 138. 

2 Meylan, G. L., "Report of the Committee on Status of Instruction 
in Hygiene in American Educational Institutions," "Proceedings of the 
Fourth Congress of the American School Hygiene Association, 1910," 
P- 173- 






PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 357 

If it is so important that the few who go to college 
should study hygiene it is even more important that the 
many who attend the high school, but who will never 
enter college, should have a scientific knowledge of this 
subject. 

Nature of Course. — Then, if it is granted that a course 
in physiology and hygiene has a place in the curriculum 
of the high school, what should be the nature of this 
course ? The aim of a high school course in physiology 
land hygiene should be to give the pupil a scientific 
knowledge, as far as that is possible, of the principles of 
physiology, hygiene, sanitation, and physical education, 
with a view to their practical application. But if this 
aim is to be realized the pupil must have acquired some 
knowledge of biology, and should also have studied chem- 
istry and physics before beginning the proposed course in 
physiology and hygiene. Then, too, the greater maturity 
of the pupil enables him to pursue such a course to better 
advantage in the later years of the high school. For if this 
course is given in the first year of the high school before 
the pupil has studied biology, chemistry, or physics, as 
is the case at the present time in the majority of the high 
schools, it can be little more than a continuation of the 
work that the pupil has already passed over in the grades. 
That kind of a course, as we have already seen, is ac- 
complishing but little in the high schools at the present 
time. However, in some States the law requires the 
teaching of physiology and hygiene in the first year of the 
high school. It has been suggested that where physi- 
ology must be taught in the first year of the high school 
it can to advantage be made part of the course in biology. 
Assuming that the pupil has already some knowledge of 
biology and chemistry, the subject-matter of the proposed 



358 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

course in physiology and hygiene should include physi- 
ology, bacteriology (which is essential to the understand- 
ing of the nature of infectious and contagious diseases), 
personal and social hygiene, sanitation, and physical edu- 
cation. In the grades the emphasis doubtless should 
be placed on personal hygiene, the formation of hygienic 
habits. But the high school age is the period of the de- 
velopment of the social instincts. And now is the time 
to emphasize social hygiene and sanitation. Let the 
youth realize that in living hygienically he is doing but 
half his duty; the other half is to co-operate with others 
in the struggle to transform an environment unfavorable 
to the health of the community. The history of the con- 
quest of yellow-fever in Cuba and the Panama Canal 
zone can be used to advantage in vitalizing the knowl- 
edge we wish to impart. For there are few pages in 
modern history more fascinating and few illustrate more 
strikingly the power of knowledge than those which tell 
of man's desperate struggle with disease. 

We have already seen that there is a growing tendency 
in the large cities to place all those interests which relate 
to the health and physical development of the child in a 
department of school hygiene. Meylan's investigation 
shows that there is also a tendency in the colleges and uni- 
versities " to correlate all the interests related to the physi- 
cal welfare of the students in the department of physical 
education or of hygiene and physical education. The ac- 
tivities usually grouped in that department include the 
teaching of hygiene, gymnastics, and athletics, the care of 
the students' health and, in some cases, the supervision 
of the sanitary condition of school buildings, dormitories, 
kitchens, water supply, and grounds. The further de- 
velopment of this growing tendency is limited only by 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 359 

the supply of men possessing the necessary character, 
general education, professional training, administrative 
ability, and sympathetic personality to properly direct a 
department of so broad and diversified interests." * 

It seems no less desirable and important in the high 
school than in the college to have the same person who 
teaches the physiology and hygiene have also general 
supervision over all other interests which relate to the 
physical welfare of the pupils. In most of the high 
schools one teacher has directed the work of athletics and 
physical education and another has taught the physiology 
and hygiene, each working without reference to the other. 
The result has been that the teaching of physiology and 
hygiene has been too theoretical; it has not touched the 
practical interests of the pupil. But when the teacher 
of the course in physiology and hygiene is also director of 
athletics and physical education, the tendency is to place 
more emphasis upon hygiene and less on physiology. 
The teacher is more apt to regard biology and physiology 
as subjects whose prime aim is to teach the pupil how to 
live. In fact, the playground and the gymnasium be- 
come laboratories for applying the principles of hygiene 
which are discussed in the class room. Here is an op- 
portunity of correlating physical training with mental 
development in a more thoroughgoing and fundamental 
way than has yet been carried out in the high schools. 

Training of Teacher. — This means, however, that the 
training of the teacher of science must be broadened to 
include courses in hygiene, sanitation, bacteriology, and 
physical training. For the teacher of the proposed course 
in physiology and hygiene should be as much interested 
in the practical as in the theoretical side of the subject. 

1 Ibid., p. 173. 



360 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

But if the teaching of hygiene is to be effective, is to leave 
its mark on the pupil, not only must the education of 
the teacher of this special subject be broadened, but the 
health-conscience of the teacher in general must be 
aroused. It is just as important for the teacher to feel 
responsible for the physical welfare of the child as for 
his moral welfare. The teacher is not employed pri- 
marily to teach morals, yet he is required to do all he can 
to inculcate moral principles and be a worthy example. 
And surely it is not asking too much for the teacher to 
receive such an education that he will take the same atti- 
tude toward the teaching of hygiene and the practising of 
hygienic living that he now takes toward the inculcating 
of moral principles and the living of a moral life. When 
this point is reached, and not until then, will the teaching 
of physiology and hygiene be as effective as the nature of 
the material, the importance of the subject-matter, and 
the demands of the time require. 



CHAPTER XX 
SEX PEDAGOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

Axdred Scott Warthtn, Ph.D., M.D. 

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND DIRECTOR OF THE PATHOLOGIC 
LABORATORIES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

The Problem. — The most remarkable paradox of our 
civilization is its attitude toward the most important 
thing of life — the reproductive function, about which 
centre the most vital interests of the individual and of 
the race. Over all things concerning sex there has been 
thrown an unholy veil of mystery and concealment, reti- 
cence and prudery; and from this strange taboo condi- 
tions have been gradually developed that now threaten the 
very foundations of our society in the shape of disease, 
white slavery, disintegration of the family, divorce, and 
race suicide. Never approached as things sacred or 
holy, matters of sex have been relegated by the modern 
world to the background as unclean, to be referred to dis- 
creetly, or with double meaning, or to be made the sub- 
ject of vulgar jest or suggestion. For this state of things 
parents have been primarily to blame. Certainly theirs 
the duty, if any one's, to bring up children in full knowl- 
edge of their bodies and of the meaning of life; and to 
prepare them to escape the frightful dangers that sexual 
ignorance entails. But the average parent evades this 
sacred duty as a thing too delicate for sober discussion, 
and the boy is left to gather from all possible sources, 

361 



362 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

most of them improper, a distorted and imperfect knowl- 
edge of sexual matters, only to learn from his own bitter 
experiences, when too late, that his parents have be- 
trayed him in not preparing him fully to meet the prob- 
lems of the sexual life. This great failure of parents to 
give the most needed aid to their children has been all the 
more paradoxical in a generation which has so vaunted 
the value of knowledge and education along all other 
lines of thought. From this one path modern society, 
particularly the Anglo-Saxon, has continually turned 
away in foolish fear and prudery, hesitating to call things 
by their proper names and avoiding the main issue at all 
hazards. If we seek for an explanation of this sad para- 
dox it may be found in certain aspects of modern religious 
beliefs. In the revolt of the primitive Christian church 
against the excess and license of Roman civilization; in 
the separation by the church of things carnal and things 
spiritual; and in the false and exaggerated conceptions 
of chastity developed during the monastic period are to 
be found the sources of the modern world's degradation 
of sex which has supplanted the pagan glorification and 
worship of the reproductive function. Under the influ- 
ence of Christian teachings the body and all of its func- 
tions, particularly the sexual, have been divorced from 
the spiritual side of man's nature and debased as agents 
hindering his salvation. Mediaeval medicine still fur- 
ther complicated matters by fostering the belief that con- 
tinence was incompatible with health, and the two con- 
flicting principles thus engrafted on our civilization are 
chiefly responsible for the present-day attitude of com- 
promise and hypocrisy toward sexual matters. 

As a result of this attitude society is being brought face 
to face with such conditions that it must in self-protection 



SEX PEDAGOGY 363 

recognize and change them, if it escape self-destruction. 
Modern medicine has been the first to herald a new era 
— that of plain speech and frank education in sex mat- 
ters. It has shown the frightful prevalence of the dis- 
eases arising from sexual promiscuity; the pathologic 
and bacteriologic laboratories of the present generation 
have demonstrated the fact that the most common of 
these diseases, gonorrhoea, formerly regarded as of slight 
consequence, is in reality one of the most serious afflic- 
tions of the race, since in a very large proportion of cases 
the individuals infected with it become germ-carriers for 
years, often without visible consequences to themselves, 
but passing the infective organisms on to innocent wives 
in whom the most serious consequences may be pro- 
duced. The relationship of this infection to pelvic dis- 
ease in woman and the great frequency with which it 
causes chronic invalidism, sterility, or conditions requir- 
ing serious operations are matters of relatively recent 
medical acquisition, but are now preached with full 
authority to laymen. 

The protean manifestations of syphilis have likewise 
been recognized, and the venereal origin of many or- 
ganic affections of the brain, heart, liver, kidneys, blood- 
vessels, and spinal cord is now accepted without any 
doubt. The researches of each year only serve to in- 
crease and extend our knowledge of these diseases and 
to increase our appreciation of the frightful havoc in 
human life and happiness that results from the modern 
conceptions of sex relationship and the ignorance of the 
great mass of laymen in matters of sexual physiology and 
hygiene. Medical opinion has also been greatly changed 
in regard to the significance of certain sexual phenomena 
and in the relation of health and sexual continence. 



364 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

The exaggerated views of the evils of self-abuse formerly 
held by the medical profession as a whole are giving 
place to a saner consideration of the effects of this habit. 

Just as soon as medicine could show that the infectious 
diseases are unnecessary and preventable it became in- 
evitable that a campaign of prevention should be initi- 
ated by its leaders. We are now in the midst of a new 
era — one of crusades against disease. In the educa- 
tional campaign against tuberculosis, typhoid fever, ma- 
laria, hook-worm disease, and other infectious diseases, 
medicine must include also the most important of all of 
these — the venereal diseases — and a crusade of preven- 
tion must likewise be instituted against them. Medicine 
has so spoken, and at its word society is being aroused to 
a new consciousness. Social workers are showing the 
tremendous waste of female life needed to keep up the 
institution of prostitution — a necessary evil, according to 
our mediaeval ideas of sex matters. Studies of city and 
country life are showing how wide-spread is the social 
evil and its physical consequences. Economists and 
statesmen are concerned over the increase in divorces and 
the disintegration of family units; and the dangers of 
race suicide are becoming subjects of every-day conver- 
sation. Legislators are appalled at the increasing finan- 
cial demands made by the insane asylums and other in- 
stitutions the very existence of which is chiefly dependent 
upon the results of vice and venereal disease. The edu- 
cational campaign spreads farther through the influence 
of editors, preachers, and educators who have grasped 
the truth of the situation. 

The more intelligent minds of the race having achieved 
the knowledge of the paradox and its disastrous influence 
upon society, its filtration to the masses becomes only a 



SEX PEDAGOGY 365 

question of time. In this case the ground has been well 
prepared by the sad experiences of thousands of individ- 
uals, who with bitterness lay the responsibility for their 
moral and physical undoing to the failure of parents and 
teachers to give them proper education in sex matters. 
Just as in the case of the modern movement for temper- 
ance, so in this movement for sex instruction does the cool 
reasoning of the average citizen, based either upon his 
own experience or upon the observation of others, con- 
stitute the force that within a few years has brought about 
a great movement throughout this country for plain 
truth in matters of sex education. Initiated by the medi- 
cal profession, the campaign for education in the ethics 
and hygiene of sex has been taken up by educators in the 
universities and colleges, by editors, social workers, and, 
finally, by the church. 

Last of all to take part in the movement have been the 
educators in the primary and secondary schools. These 
teachers, like the average parent, remain afraid to touch 
the subject, or are blind to the actual conditions about 
them, denying the facts, opposing discussion or disclosure, 
casting accusations of exaggerations or pruriency upon 
those who do brave public opinion by recognition of 
conditions, or advocating the old policy of silence and 
prudery. Other teachers see the facts and are greatly 
troubled over them, but feel helpless; lacking knowledge 
themselves, they confess their inadequacy to meet the 
situation. Only here and there do we find exceptions, 
in the case of younger teachers, mostly recent university 
graduates, who carry to the schools the knowledge con- 
cerning these matters they have obtained from university 
lectures. These men feel themselves handicapped by 
lack of knowledge sufficient to present the subject in an 



3G6 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

authoritative manner; but they have served to extend 
the campaign, and for the chief part they find a ready 
co-operation of parents in their attempts at guiding the 
high school student into an ethical and hygienic path 
sexually. 

There can be no doubt that the psychologic moment 
has arrived when the primary and secondary schools 
must take up into the curriculum earnest and definite 
methods of teaching the ethics and hygiene of sex. It is 
discouraging that the great mass of teachers has been 
so slow to awaken to a knowledge of the need for this 
kind of teaching; but the reason need not be sought far 
in the difficult nature of the problem of just what should 
be taught, how much, and when, and by whom. No 
greater, certainly no more vital problem, presents itself 
to-day for the thoughtful consideration of our educators 
— and certainly no more difficult one. Just when we 
should begin to present sex matters to the attention of 
the child, in how dilute or complete a form should this 
knowledge be given, how to achieve such teaching with- 
out arousing morbid fears and giving birth to psychoses, 
or without prematurely stimulating sexual instincts, how 
much of this sex knowledge should be taught at home, 
how much left to the teacher, and the part the physi- 
cian should play in this sex pedagogy, are but the chief 
features of the greatest and most important pedagogi- 
cal problem of the day. Indeed, we must realize that 
the field of sex pedagogy is practically undeveloped, and 
that no part of it has been worked out in any satisfac- 
tory way. The whole matter will have to be attacked 
experimentally and our pedagogic judgments must be 
based upon the actual results of practice. No other sub- 
ject admits less of theorizing than this cne; and no dog- 



SEX PEDAGOGY 367 

matic statements can be made as to the best way in which 
to proceed. To Germany we may look for some help, 
for German conscience has been aroused earlier than 
ours, and for some years an agitation for sex pedagogy 
has been developing there upon a foundation both ethical 
and scientific. But while the difficulty of the problem 
may argue for caution it must not be taken as an argu- 
ment for too great prudence. Better to attack the situa- 
tion, even if we do it imperfectly. On one point the 
opinion of experts upon this subject is unanimous — 
something must be done; and society in a vague unrest 
and dissatisfaction over existing conditions is expecting 
help from the schools. Parents have acknowledged their 
weakness and their inability; and although theoretically 
we may believe that sex teaching should be done by the 
parents and in the home, we also know that a moral and 
intellectual regeneration of the present generation of 
American parents would have to be accomplished first, 
before such teaching is possible. Such a parental re- 
generation is beyond the range of possibility, hence the 
schools must take up the burden of fighting sex igno- 
rance just as thoroughly as they have been occupied with 
the fight against illiteracy. 

Within the last five years societies advocating the 
teaching of sex matters to school-children have been 
formed in seventeen States, and actual instruction of this 
kind is now being given in some schools in New York, 
Maryland, Michigan, Oregon, and Washington. Scat- 
tered attempts elsewhere have been made; but all of 
these efforts have been almost wholly the work of medi- 
cal men and have been concerned chiefly with the spread- 
ing of the knowledge of the dangers of the venereal dis- 
eases. The medical interest in this crusade has been 



368 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

chiefly one of disease prevention and has appealed to the 
element of fear. For this reason the campaign against 
venereal diseases has been criticised by some educators as 
an attempt to frighten young men into virtue. But it is 
accomplishing what religious and moral instruction up 
to the present time has not succeeded in doing, by arous- 
ing a popular movement for sexual purity on the grounds 
of physical welfare. More than this is needed, however; 
there must be developed a higher ideal of sexual relation- 
ship in its broadest meaning. Our young people must be 
taught not only the physical evils of sexual misuse or 
abuse, but the significance and value of normal sex rela- 
tionships must be interpreted for them in no uncertain 
terms. The best as well as the worst aspects must be 
shown, the physiologic as well as the pathologic. 

Methods of Attacking the Problem. — Within the limits 
of so short a chapter but little more can be done than to 
sketch very briefly the main points to be considered in 
sex pedagogy in the high school. As my own experience 
in such teaching has been almost wholly confined to 
university or college men my views upon this matter have 
been very slowly taking form through the knowledge of 
the secondary schools gained from talks with university 
students coming from the high school and with high 
school teachers. Fifteen years of experience in lecturing 
to college men upon sexual ethics and hygiene has con- 
vinced me that the great majority of young men who com- 
mit sexual errors do so while in the high school, and 
that for such the lectures in the university come too 
late. In talking with university students I find that they 
insist upon the need for such instruction in the lower 
schools, and an often heard comment is an expressed wish 
that such instruction had been given in the high school 



SEX PEDAGOGY 369 

at home. It is, of course, true that a certain number of 
men who enter the colleges still clean lose themselves 
while students, usually as the result of drinking habits 
acquired during the college course or the influence of 
evil-minded companions who have had a perverted con- 
ception of sex matters ever since their days in the second- 
ary schools. All experience, physiologic and pathologic, 
as well as sociologic and pedagogic, points emphatically 
to the age of puberty as the time when the youth of both 
sexes must be so instructed in sex matters that they will 
have a perfectlv healthy understanding of the subject 
and develop naturally in the way of health and virtue and 
escape vice and disease. 

For the boy, at least, the period of puberty usually is 
coincident with the years spent in the high school; and 
it is under the influence of the latter that the most im- 
portant crisis of his physical life is passed. Few teachers 
realize the significance of this change of life in the boy — 
about it centres the whole boy-problem. The emotional 
and nervous strain, the physical weakness, with the 
mental unrest and lack of a sense of proportion that 
characterize this age are rarely interpreted by the teacher 
as sex phenomena, and still more rarely met by sympa- 
thy and tact on his part. Nearly all of the failures of 
boys in the high school or at home during this period can 
be traced to this cause; and teachers and parents are the 
ones to be blamed rather than the unfortunate boy. 

What Shall Be Taught. — While all must agree upon the 
necessity of some instruction upon sex matters to the 
boy at the age of puberty, the point which here chiefly 
concerns us is the nature and amount of such teaching. 
Sex instruction, I believe, should be of two kinds; it 
must be constructive, as well as negative and preventive. 



370 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Not only must the moral and physical evils of vice be 
shown, but the ideal side and the higher significance of 
the sex relationship must be given equal emphasis, or the 
dangers of a one-sided teaching will ensue. It is just as 
important in this day to teach the need, the beauty, and 
dignity of the normal sex relationship as it is to preach 
the horrors of sexual vice and the venereal diseases. We 
may then outline a programme for sex pedagogy in the 
high school, as follows: 

A. — CONSTRUCTIVE TEACHING 

i. The essential anatomic and physiologic facts con- 
cerning the organs and function of reproduction should 
be taught to boys and girls in separate classes by properly 
qualified men and women teachers, respectively. 

2. Courses in botany and zoology may be given in 
mixed classes and the phenomena of reproduction treated 
simply and naturally, without evasion or prudery. Tact 
and common-sense on the part of the teacher should be 
employed in revealing rather than in concealing. 

3. Sex and the reproduction of life should be treated 
not as vile or evil matters, but should be taught as the 
greatest and most wonderful phenomena of life. Ideals 
of home life, biologic and sociologic, the significance of 
the family, the mutual obligation of the sexes, and the 
necessity for social conventions should all be taught as 
a part of the preparation of the youth for good citizen- 
ship. History and literature should be freely used to build 
up high ideals of sex relationships. The ideals of ultimate 
happy marriage and parenthood should be held up, and 
the necessity of complete preparation, both physically and 
mentally, for this should be carefully instilled into the 
developing minds and characters of high school students. 



SEX PEDAGOGY 371 

4. The physiologic significance of night dreams and 
emissions mus't be taught in a sane way to the boy. He 
must be shown that these are normal, that they do not 
indicate any disease or weakness, but are, on the con- 
trary, a sign of his developing virility. He must be 
taught also that there is a certain periodicity in his sexual 
life, and that many sensations and emotions are normal 
and must be regarded in a natural way, without worry 
or undue consideration. That the number of nightly 
emissions varies greatly in a given time in the case of 
perfectly normal and healthy men, and that frequency in 
itself is no indication of what is normal or abnormal must 
be clearly shown him. The standard of physical well- 
being, energy, and the desire to be something and to do 
something are to be given him as criteria of the normal 
course of his sexual functions. The importance of exer- 
cise, bathing, good and sufficient food, fresh air and suf- 
ficient sleep, abstinence from narcotics and other drugs, 
and conservation of his developing sexual powers by re- 
fraining from masturbation or intercourse are all-im- 
portant points in the personal hygiene that should con- 
stitute a position of primary importance in the high school 
curriculum. 

A similar line of teaching adapted to sex differences 
should be given the girls by teachers of their own sex in 
segregated classes. Here the significance of the men- 
strual function should be carefully taught in such a way 
that the too-prevalent ideas of humiliation and physical 
inferiority be counteracted by the development of an 
entirely different psychical atmosphere about the whole 
matter. The sacredness of the function, and a healthy 
attitude toward maternity and the marriage relation 
should be instilled in a natural way into the minds of the 



372 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

young girls without awakening precocity and over-sexual- 
consciousness. This teaching should be impersonal, 
without much dwelling upon the sexual organs or the 
sexual act, and treated always in a biologic way, without 
over-sentiment or morbidness. 

5. The vice of self-abuse should likewise be treated 
in a sane way, according to the views of the best modern 
experts upon this question. It can be truthfully said 
that more harm has been done by warnings against self- 
abuse than was ever caused directly by the habit itself. 
It should be treated of as an abnormal, unmanly, un- 
satisfactory, and unpleasant habit, that grows by use and 
uses up energy and vitality needed for other purposes. 
It can be shown that a boy in whom the habit has be- 
come a thing of daily occurrence is not likely to be ener- 
getic, cheerful, vigorous, and pushing in his studies and 
in other interests, but is likely to be jaded, dull, and 
lacking in interest in life. The moral injury of yielding 
to any habit should be applied here, and the importance 
of self-control in general should be emphasized directly 
and indirectly. Similar teaching must be given to girls 
by teachers of their own sex. 

6. The old error that chastity is incompatible with 
health must be replaced by the modern view that sexual 
indulgence is not a physiologic necessity. Boys should be 
taught that many men of the strongest physical and in- 
tellectual development have lived perfectly healthy lives 
with complete abstinence in sexual matters. Celibacy 
should not be taught, however, and the highest ideal of 
life presented to high school pupils should include the 
ideal sex relationship as exemplified in the duties of 
fatherhood and motherhood. The importance of repro- 
duction for the race must be taught as the highest ethical 



SEX PEDAGOGY 373 

responsibility laid upon the individual man and woman. 
Such a responsibility entails now a certain degree of 
preparation; certain years for education and physical 
development, and for the establishment of the life work, 
business, or profession are needed, and during these 
years from the age of puberty up to the age of twenty-six 
or more, self-control is necessary, and chaste living not 
only desirable, but necessary for the good of the individ- 
ual and the race. As matters stand now, young people in 
great numbers acquire the idea that sexual looseness is 
a part of life, and that every one is expected to have had 
some experiences of this kind. It is all explained by 
"human nature," and that is said to be "unchanging." 
Just such sophistries as these must be counteracted in 
the schools, particularly in the high schools. Nothing 
is more sad than the cynicism of the young man who is 
suffering from the results of his philosophy of life, in the 
acquisition of venereal disease. The expressed belief 
that "all men do it" reveals the home and school training, 
as well as the narrow experience of such young people. 
They have not learned that there are men at the other 
end of the human scale who do lead clean lives, and 
just as manly, vigorous, and useful lives, as those who, un- 
der the fatuous self-deception of vicious experience claim 
to know real life and the real world. The writers and 
philosophers who have preached the doctrines of "living 
one's own life," of "the necessity of knowing all experi- 
ence," the "sowing of wild oats," and the necessity for 
every young man's having his "fling" have a terrible re- 
sponsibility upon them in the shape of young lives come 
to wreck through the practical application of such 
theories. The day is past when any one can hold such 
views in the light of the revealments of modern medicine 



374 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

regarding the results of the perversion and misuse of 
the sexual function. When the harvest of wild oats 
consists chiefly of diseases affecting not only the individ- 
ual directly concerned, but manifesting themselves also 
in innocent wives and children, upon more remote de- 
scendants and upon the race as a whole, then no one 
having such knowledge can tolerate for a moment this 
specious, vicious argument. And it is just against this 
very thing that a large part of the constructive sex educa- 
tion in the schools must be directed. 

7. Such teaching must be to large extent positive. It 
must be given by teachers who can hold the respect and 
confidence of the young people under their charge, and 
who can stimulate the growth of ideals. Everything that 
makes for character development and for the strength- 
ening of self-control is of the very greatest importance in 
establishing high ideals of the sex relationship, and hence 
in the prevention of sexual mistakes and perversions. 
Prophylaxis may thus be indirectly obtained without too 
much isolation or over emphasis of the sex passion itself. 
With children in whom the germs of sympathy and altru- 
ism have been awakened, the development of a high ideal 
of sex relations from the positive side will not be difficult. 
The broader relations of the sexes in their influence upon 
human progress and the development of human ideals, 
as well as the rewards of a normal sexual life in the ful- 
filment of family life can be presented to the high school 
student properly; and certainly are of greater importance 
at this time than the teaching of civics, since the family- 
unit constitutes the foundation of the State, and the prep- 
aration for the broader knowledge should come first. 

8. The foundations for such positive teaching of sex 
relations must be laid farther back than the high school. 



SEX PEDAGOGY 375 

The child should not be allowed to come unprepared to 
the strain and stress of puberty. Hence it is essential 
that sex pedagogy be begun before this time, whether 
in the home or in the school. If not in the home, then it 
becomes the function of the primary schools. It is not 
within our province here to discuss the material or the 
methods of such primary sex pedagogy; but we may 
venture the belief that it should be general rather than 
detailed, and chiefly constructive. As we are concerned 
with the character of the teaching during the period of 
puberty, the methods of teaching the material outlined 
above constitute the most important pedagogical problem 
now facing us. As stated above, no detailed methods 
have been worked out, the whole matter is in an experi- 
mental stage, properly trained teachers are lacking, and 
even satisfactory literature is not obtainable in any form 
that can be utilized. It is necessary, therefore, to proceed 
with caution in constructive sex pedagogy, carefully feel- 
ing the way, avoiding the pitfall of sentimentality on the 
one hand and that of sexual stimulation on the other. 
The very newness of the experiment, and the danger of 
producing an unfavorable reaction in the minds of the 
public are good reasons for the exercise of great care in 
the beginning of such teaching. But the public is wait- 
ing for such teaching and will give its hearty approval 
of attempts made in the proper way. 

B. — PREVENTIVE TEACHING 

i. The attack upon the problem from the stand-point 
of preventive medicine has been developed to a much 
greater degree. Indeed, from the medical side, the at- 
tempts at sex pedagogy have been chiefly along this line; 
and the physical evils of sexual misuse or perversion, as 



376 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

manifested in the venereal diseases, constitute at the pres- 
ent time the chief material of sex pedagogy. This em- 
phasis on consequence has, curiously enough, been criti- 
cised by certain educators who see the whole question 
from laymen's eyes and not with medical understanding. 
A good deal of sentimental twiddle-twaddle has been ut- 
tered about the teaching of "venereal pathology," about 
the appeal to the "fear of consequences," the "fright- 
ening of youth into virtue," the "shocking of tender 
susceptibii-ties," etc. These same educators hark back 
to the old appeal that virtue should be taught rather 
than the results of vice; but centuries of this appeal on 
the part of religion have failed utterly and the venereal 
evil to-day is more appalling than it has ever been at 
any period in the history of civilization. The appeal to 
virtue for virtue's sake alone has not been successful 
hitherto, because such virtue has not been shown to have 
any positive value. It has remained for medicine and 
sociology to show that the spiritual conception of sexual 
virtue has a positive foundation of the most tremendous 
importance to the individual and the race; and this 
foundation is one of consequences, just as it is of every 
other positive virtue. It is not necessary to pursue this 
argument farther; in its modern attitude toward the 
universe the human mind demands, first of all, that it be 
shown the reason. In the case of this great fundamental 
human instinct and passion any attempt to restrict what 
have previously been accepted as rights and privileges 
must be clearly shown to be based upon very good and 
sufiicient reasons. It is not a question of fear in a cow- 
ardly sense, as some sentimentalists would have it re- 
garded, but one of common- sense recognition of cause 
and effect, precisely the same attitude that we should have 



SEX PEDAGOGY 377 

toward small-pox, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, only 
more marked because of the more serious and farther- 
reaching consequences. 

2. I believe emphatically that the physical evils of 
venereal promiscuity should be fully taught to the young 
people of both sexes at the age of puberty. This teach- 
ing cannot be done with full authority by laymen, but 
should be given by properly qualified and reputable physi- 
cians of both sexes who have special preparation for 
such work. That few teachers of this kind exist at the 
present time is- true; and it will become necessary to 
develop such. When they are not available, then this 
teaching should be given into the hands of the best pre- 
pared laymen available, most naturally into the hands 
of the teachers of biology. Indeed, there is no reason 
why teachers of biology should not have included in their 
preparatory work a medical course fitting them for such 
teaching. Approved leaflets and books may help greatly 
in such teaching, and there is great need for good litera- 
ture of this kind. Special teachers may also be employed 
by the State, district, or county to go from school to 
school delivering courses of instruction. If nothing else 
can be secured the State university medical school could 
supply lecturers on a university extension basis. Such 
lectures could well cover the entire field of preventive 
medicine. 

3. The material for these lectures should consist of a 
full exposition, in simple language adapted to the age of 
the children, of venereal pathology, particularly of the 
two diseases gonorrhoea and syphilis. The general nat- 
ure of these diseases, the relative incurability or diffi- 
culty of cure, the consequences remaining even when a 
"cure" has been effected, the development of "germ- 



378 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

carriers," the danger of apparent cures, the local and 
remote effects of these infections, the frequent cause of 
blindness in the infant, the production of sterility in both 
sexes, pelvic disease in the female with consequences of 
severe or fatal operations or chronic invalidism, the re- 
lation of syphilis to organic lesions of the internal organs, 
insanity and other nervous affections, the transmission of 
the disease to the progeny — all this, and more, should be 
put before the young boy who is reaching the period of 
sexual temptation. Prostitution, in its full significance, 
as requiring the sacrifice of the lives of the women enter- 
ing it — the full sociologic meaning of white slavery and 
the part played in this frightful tragedy by every male 
who indulges in promiscuous intercourse — as constituting 
the source of all venereal disease, and as the fountain- 
head of infections involving the innocent as well as the 
guilty, should be explained to young people at the age 
of puberty. The dangers of using common objects should 
be taught in connection with these diseases, as well as in 
the case of tuberculosis and other infections. 

4. In addition to the peril of venereal disease should 
be taught the degenerative effects of unrestrained lust, 
both in masturbation and sexual intercourse. The 
sapping of energy, the weakening of the will power and 
the physical and mental deterioration resulting from pre- 
mature or excessive use of the function should be shown 
without exaggeration or overdrawn pictures of the evil 
results of masturbation. The latter should not be made 
a greater evil than promiscuous sexual intercourse, as it 
has been and still is by ignorant parents and teachers. 
Full warning against the quacks who fatten upon the 
sexual ignorance of young boys and men should be 
given; and young people should be advised to go to their 



SEX PEDAGOGY 379 

family physician if they believe they have any organic 
condition or defect. The bugbear of varicocele should be 
laid by anatomic explanation. 

If such information be regarded as strong meat for 
young people the situation justifies it. If it be properly 
given no normal young person can be other than helped 
by it — if the neurotic ones occasionally develop phobias 
and psychoses it may be taken for granted that they will 
any way, from other causes, particularly the very evils 
we are attacking; and phobias against these evils are less 
harmful to society at large than the conditions arising 
from the evils themselves. 

5. In the high schools other problems offer themselves 
bearing more or less directly upon the questions here con- 
cerned. The part which the high school secret fraternity 
plays in the acquisition of venereal disease by high school 
students is in my experience a very important one. I 
have known of one of these societies in which every young 
boy was found to have venereal disease. Interscholastic 
athletics and the uncontrolled visits of young boys to 
strange towns or cities lead inevitably, under our pres- 
ent conditions, to alcoholic and sexual indulgence on the 
part of a certain number of boys. Greater control and a 
closer supervision of these factors is urgently demanded. 
The social features of the high school, and all the social 
and co-operative activities should be so guided that they 
will be potent in bringing about an ideal of the higher 
significance of the sex relationships. 

Conclusion. — In a very brief space, and very inade- 
quately, I have endeavored to outline the problem and 
the chief means of attack. Since the latter is the burn- 
ing question, the attempt at solving this great educational 
problem may be summed up as follows; 



380 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

i. The development in young people of an ideal con- 
ception of sex relationship, and the necessity of sex part- 
nership in all that stands for life — spiritual and physical, 
evolution and procreation — should form the foundation 
of sex pedagogy. 

2. Upon this foundation should be placed the fullest 
teachings of the sociologic and hygienic aspects of the 
problem, particularly all that is concerned with the pre- 
vention of disease and the conservation of human life, 
health, and happiness. 



CHAPTER XXI 

AGRICULTURE 
C. H. Robison, Ph.D. 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, UPPER MONTCLAIR, N. J. 

As a subject in the high school curriculum, agricult- 
ure is of recent date. During the first half of the last 
century we find scattered instances of futile attempts 
to introduce it into certain academies with humanistic 
tendencies. For years the agriculture taught in many 
land-grant colleges was of purely secondary grade. Un- 
like many other secondary studies, it came down from 
the college only indirectly; that is, it was made effective 
in the high schools after a partial failure in the elemen- 
tary schools with their severe handicap of the unprepared 
condition of the teachers. When scarcely one hundred 
publicly supported secondary schools had introduced 
agriculture, it was required by law in the rural schools 
of twelve States. While rather indifferently obeyed, 
these laws indicated a growing sentiment that has re- 
sulted in the rapid introduction of agriculture into rural 
high schools. 

What Agriculture Is.— To those living by it, agricult- 
ure is a business; to those practicing it successfully, it 
certainly is an art. As a school subject it might be called 
a study as safely as most branches ; whether a science or 
something else depends on the kind and amount of organ- 
ization. If the facts of agricultural practice are considered 

381 



382 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

with reference to underlying principles, and if from these 
are formulated definite lines of procedure organized into a 
system, we may call the product a science. For secondary 
school purposes, it might even be sufficient to present 
merely the illustrative materials verifying these principles. 
The science of agriculture is more than a unifying organ- 
ization of correct agricultural practices. It includes an 
exposition of the correctness of those practices in the 
light of underlying principles drawn from physics, chem- 
istry, and biology, just as the last, in its turn, makes large 
use of the other two. 

Agriculture and biology, when handicapped by lack 
of a broad foundation, must be presented largely from 
the nature-study view-point, in which the recurrence of 
the seasons governs, to no small degree, the selection of 
topics and their subsequent organization. Agriculture 
may then be designated rather as an introduction to 
science than as a science itself. This view will be elabo- 
rated later. 

Aims. — Like any other art, that of farming requires 
much practice. Many details may be repeated in close 
succession. The final results of many of the operations, 
however, cannot be judged until all opportunity for cor- 
recting bad practices has passed. The experience gained 
must be applied to the problems of another growing sea- 
son. Quite evidently, then, it is outside the province of 
the general high school to give any but the most meagre 
training in the art of farming. In short, it cannot be 
expected to function as a trade school. This is entirely 
aside from the proposition to create a congeries of trade 
schools associated with the non-special high school, on 
the same campus and under the same administration. 
Indeed, many self-styled agricultural schools, of both 



AGRICULTURE 383 

secondary and higher rank, give no instruction, and often 
no practice, in many common and fundamental farm 
operations. They frankly state that a boy not reared 
on a farm cannot profitably pursue most of their work. 
Until special secondary schools of agriculture do this 
easily, the general high school should not be expected to 
do so. In spite of many contrary opinions, it might seem 
as reasonable, however, for the general school to turn out 
gardeners as stenographers. The " multiple high school," 
if we may coin the term, might properly do both. 

While not giving much practice in the agricultural 
arts, the study in the general high school may reasonably 
hope to give the student an understanding of the simpler 
processes and laws of nature involved in raising crops and 
animals. It may bring him to realize that a trained mind 
is necessary to the successful management of a farm. 
It certainly should furnish him with a working vocabu- 
lary with which to read intelligently agricultural jour- 
nals and official bulletins. The materials used will have 
great informational value whether the aim be consciously 
utilitarian or not. 

If we accept the view that to be cultural is to be use- 
less, we can hardly imagine agriculture having a cultural 
value. To the extent that it makes the otherwise dead 
science bristle with reality, gives an intelligent view of 
the foundation of our national prosperity, creates a 
thoughtful attitude toward the future calling of the stu- 
dents, to that extent all must admit the study to be cult- 
ural in the highest degree. The study of agricultural 
economics in most elementary fashion may suggest a 
better sense of proportion between capital and labor, 
employer and employed, work and leisure. 

The migration from farm to factory is probably too 



384 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

deeply rooted in social and economic conditions to be 
affected by efforts of the schools as much as we might 
hope. 

Disciplinary Values. — The same disciplinary values 
may be claimed for agriculture as for any other high 
school study using the materials of science with the same 
degree of organization, when taught by teachers as com- 
petent as those in charge of the standard sciences. This 
is entirely aside from the cloud under which rests the 
whole theory of formal discipline. For if there is virtue 
in observation, in individual laboratory work, in keeping 
careful and neat records, in the motor activities involved, 
agriculture offers the same possibilities as any science, 
although they have not been utilized to anything like 
their full extent. It affords as much use as they do for 
induction and verification. In short, it should be as 
useful, if properly taught, as any subject in the curric- 
ulum for giving training in the scientific method. But 
learning to garden by imitation or by rule certainly will 
not accomplish this desirable result. Reasoning ability 
not due to heredity results largely from repeatedly form- 
ing and correcting judgments. Casual examination of 
the materials of high school agriculture show that they 
offer abundant opportunities for doing this. The prob- 
lem is chiefly one of efficient instruction. 

The introduction of agriculture is an effort to relate 
school work more directly to the interests of rural com- 
munities, which usually show greater homogeneity, both 
racial and vocational, than those supporting city high 
schools. The presence of one interest overshadowing 
all others is an advantage, but the great complexity of 
this one is something of a disadvantage in arranging a 
curriculum. 



AGRICULTURE 385 

Agriculture finds its justification in the doctrine of in- 
terest in a way unequalled by most studies. This is 
true whether it be the means merely of " humanizing" 
the standard sciences, whether it be pursued in a super- 
ficial way, or whether studied in detail. Even in the 
latter event, we can hardly expect this one subject to be 
purely vocational while the general spirit of the high 
school is so decidedly the reverse. 

Relation to Grade Work. — The pupils in about one- 
half of the high schools with courses in agriculture have 
had some nature-study or elementary agriculture in the 
grades. Just in so far as the nature-study idea, that of 
observational study of common natural objects of inter- 
est, is preserved, to that degree will the work of the grade 
be of direct benefit to high school courses in agriculture. 
It will keep alive the spirit of inquiry, create a respect 
for the pupils' own observations, and bring together some 
of the raw materials for later generalizations in the high 
school studies using the more strictly "scientific" method 
of thought. To the degree, however, that the seventh 
or eighth grade attempts to make a survey of the entire 
field, to become informational rather than observational, 
it will be likely to overlap or encroach on the province and 
materials of the first-year high school study, so that the 
latter runs the risk of seeming insipid. When preceded 
by suitable work in the grades, an elementary course in 
the high school has a peculiar field discussed later. The 
more technical or specialized divisions of a three or 
four year course in agriculture may profitably use a re- 
view of earlier observations to serve as an approach to 
the subjects of serious investigation. 

Present Status. — The number of public high schools, 
both general and special, has increased from seventy-five 



386 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

or eighty in the school year 1 906-1 907 to approximately 
one thousand in 1909-1910. While the annual rate of 
increase has fallen from 300 per cent to less than 100 per 
cent, it is still so large that figures given here will be out 
of date before reaching the public. Considerably more 
schools have agriculture for part of a year, a third or a 
half, than have it extending throughout the year. Even 
in this case, a "full" year's work is as likely to mean 
thirty-two or thirty-four weeks as it is to mean thirty- 
six, thirty-eight, or forty weeks. These estimates are 
based on reports from one hundred and seventy-one 
schools with courses one year or less in length. Of the 
entire number, eighty-two reported an eighteen-week 
term. In 1910-11, nearly seventy-five schools received 
State aid for agriculture, about half of them offering 
general high school work as well, and half being more 
properly classed as special or agricultural trade schools 
supported entirely by the State. Although the number 
of technical schools had not increased materially by 
191 2, the State-aided high schools with agricultural de- 
partments numbered about one hundred and fifty, while 
another hundred maintained agricultural courses of two 
or more years without State assistance. Correspond- 
ingly recent data as to the number of high schools offer- 
ing courses of one year or less are not available as this 
chapter goes to press. 

Among the States making provision (1910) for agri- 
cultural education, apart from agricultural colleges and 
industrial schools for negroes, may be mentioned Ala- 
bama, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Idaho, Louisiana, 
Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis- 
sippi, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, 
Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Owing 



AGRICULTURE 387 

to the indefinite and varying use of the term "agricul- 
tural high school," both legally and in popular usage, 
it is impossible in a mere list to differentiate the two 
classes mentioned above. No high school in New Jer- 
sey, and, perhaps, in other States, has taken advantage 
of this financial inducement. 

Many other high schools maintain pretentious indus- 
trial departments without special State aid. In the 
States having the largest number of high schools with 
agriculture in but one year, namely, in Missouri, Ne- 
braska, and Ohio, the work is supported only by local 
funds. 

An effort has been made in the last three sessions of 
Congress to lend Federal aid in establishing agricultural 
high schools, extending the present policy regarding the 
colleges. In its latest form the so-called "Davis Bill" 
proposes to extend this aid under certain conditions to 
State normal schools and to general high schools for 
the maintenance of departments of agriculture, mechanic 
arts, and home economics. 

While as high as six hundred minutes per week have 
been reported for a single class in agriculture, five periods 
of forty minutes each is the amount of time spent by the 
classes in over half of the schools. While this indicates 
that little extra time is regularly appointed for laboratory 
or garden exercises, it should be borne in mind that the 
same schools give little, if any, such extra time to other 
sciences. 

College Entrance. — Agriculture is probably as well 
taught in the smaller high schools as are the sciences 
generally — also as badly. Any science teacher whose 
work is acceptable to colleges using the accrediting sys- 
tem will probably teach agriculture to their satisfaction, 



388 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

though often not to the satisfaction of the community. 
Where very few universities and colleges were willing 
to accept agriculture as late as 1908, we find two years 
later that between sixty and seventy have arranged to 
give entrance credit for the subject or are willing to do so 
if it is offered. In some State universities it is accepted 
only by the colleges of agriculture and of education, while 
in others it is accepted by the college of arts and sciences 
as well. At present the attitude of the colleges is more 
liberal than the quality of instruction in agriculture in a 
large proportion of the schools would seem to justify. 
There is scarcely any disposition to accept it for more 
than a half-unit or one unit of credit. To quote from 
the report of the Committee on Encouraging College 
Credit in High School Agriculture: 1 

"In a condensed form, the following definition of a 
unit and of a half-unit seems to be acceptable to most 
institutions: 

" One-half Unit. — One-half year given to the study of 
soils and plants and their relation to each other. There 
shall be sufficient experimental work to accompany the 
subjects discussed. 

" One Unit. — One full year shall be given to the study 
of soils, plants, insects, and farm animals. There shall 
be sufficient experimental and demonstration work to be 
equivalent to one full year of laboratory work." 

Using the above as a working definition of a unit and 
of a half-unit, a high school may not reasonably expect 
any credit for a course of eighteen weeks of only two 
hundred minutes a week. A year of this amount of 
work each week would hardly be more than the equiva- 
lent of a half-unit, and would, if including all the full- 

1 National Education Association, "Proceedings and Addresses," 1910. 



AGRICULTURE 389 

unit topics, be open to the objection of having the time 
scattered over too many topics. Certain universities, 
notably the University of Wisconsin, permit a combi- 
nation of agriculture with botany to be offered as one 
unit. 

None of the ninety-four college officials replying to 
the inquiries sent out by the committee questioned the 
informational or disciplinary value of the study. 

One- Year Agriculture. — In view of the foregoing facts, 
we may well inquire into the proper function of a short 
course in agriculture taught in the first or second year. 
It cannot compete with or build upon the physical sciences 
as at present taught. It will probably parallel or follow 
botany and physical geography. While at present agri- 
culture exists too much apart from either study, widely 
different suggestions have been made as to its relations 
to them: one pointing to close correlation, the other to 
the substitution of a year's work in agriculture for the 
half year's work each in botany and physical geography 
so commonly given in the earlier years of the rural high 
school. For high school agriculture texts already give 
extensive treatment of topics belonging to these studies. 

Any science given in the first year naturally functions 
somewhat as an "elementary" or "introductory" sci- 
ence, especially if attempting also to supply desirable 
facts from other underlying sciences. An established 
science has a thread of continuity so painfully lacking in 
the various proposed courses in "elementary science." 
These excel in the selection of topics closely related to 
human affairs and in including none merely for the sake 
of symmetry or logical development, though commonly 
neglecting biological phenomena. The proponents of 
agriculture claim that the standard sciences as presented 



390 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

to-day contain too much matter unrelated to actual life, 
and that no one has enough points of contact with life 
to serve as an introduction to science at large. 

Agriculture promises much as an introduction to the 
standard sciences and as an orderly vehicle for almost 
all desirable scientific topics, one that has a very evident 
relation to an environment not distinctly urban, and one 
that may seem logical to the adolescent mind. The im- 
portant point, after all, is not conformity to a scheme that 
is logical only from the adult point of view. Agriculture 
possesses a thread of continuity most apparent on the 
economic side, and its materials are as well organized, 
to say the least, as are those of the tentative courses in 
" elementary science." It might better be considered as a 
practical and humanistic "introduction" to science than 
as an "elementary science." 

The Longer Course. — An agricultural high school, in 
the opinion of the American Association of Agricultural 
Colleges and Experiment Stations, should require all stu- 
dents to spend at least one-fourth of the entire time on 
agriculture (or home economics, for girls) and should 
make definite provision for practice in farm operations. 
Many agricultural secondary schools require a much 
larger proportion of the student's time. A well-developed 
optional course will approach this standard with the 
possible exceptions of some general or introductory work 
in science in the first year and less effort at actual farm 
operations. 

Its Differentiation. — The relative positions of the differ- 
ent divisions of the general course in agriculture is one of 
the first administrative questions to arise. We have no 
precedent to guide, and present usage shows scarcely any 
notable agreement. Even the names of the divisions 



AGRICULTURE 391 

show puzzling confusion. 1 For instance, the tendency 
in practice is to arrange a compact course called " animal 
husbandry," including all consideration of farm animals, 
and usually given in the same year, preferably the third. 
The recommended courses tend somewhat to break this 
up into a multiplicity of part-unit studies to be given in 
different years, as judging and breeds of stock, to be 
taught early in the course, and feeding and breeding of 
stock, to be studied in the fourth year, with dairying 
somewhere in between. The study of plants usually 
occurs in practice during the second year, whether la- 
belled agronomy, crops, horticulture; or else in the first 
year, when included in that as yet undefined thing, agri- 
cultural botany. The proposed courses of study agree 
mainly in placing this "new" botany in the first year. 
They also further break up the plant work into forestry, 
gardening, plant propagation, plant breeding, seed judg- 
ing, and plant diseases. While any one tentative course 
may plan these elements to come mostly within some two 
years of the curriculum, the joint effect of the recom- 
mendations is not to furnish any clue to their proper 
place. In addition to the agreement as to the position 
of agricultural botany, both sets of courses agree in plac- 
ing farm management in the fourth year. The theoreti- 
cal courses place here also the isolated topics, feeding and 
poultry. 

Correlation. — An important factor in placing the agri- 
cultural topics is their proximity to the related natural 

1 These remarks are based on a comparison of the curricula of seven 
widely separated high schools which have longest had in operation agri- 
cultural courses of three or four years, and of seven tentative courses, 
two recommended by State departments of education, three by State 
university officers, and two by officials of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 



392 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

sciences. A tendency to place soil study in the first year 
might be ascribed to the usual occurrence of physical 
geography at that time, or, in the third or fourth year, to 
the presence of physics or chemistry. Likewise with dai- 
rying, whose manufacturing processes are largely chem- 
ical. A justification for separating seed and stock judg- 
ing and breeds, apart from studies involving heredity, 
chemistry, and physiology, may well be that the former are 
largely matters of observation rather than matters depen- 
dent upon principles learned in the high school sciences. 

Correlation is a matter of administration and teaching 
method. It should enable the present sciences to find a 
social expression in the agriculture taught. The latter 
should be close enough in time to be of real value in 
illustrating scientific principles. Likewise, the agricult- 
ural topic should follow so closely after the science as to 
render unnecessary a review, practically, of the scientific 
matter. Thus may be justified the splitting up of the 
agricultural subjects referred to above. Another alter- 
native is the elimination of science, as such. A notable 
example is furnished by botany. Not a few high schools 
have substituted a year course in agriculture for botany. 
The course in agronomy, planned by the Committee of 
Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of American 
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, with a 
few additions, would include about all the botany a rural 
high school could profitably teach. Certain recent agri- 
cultural texts include much plant physiology and not a 
little morphology, the botanical topics generally ignored 
being flowerless plants, except bacteria, and identifica- 
tion by analysis. 

Texts. — Until 1906 only one text of high school grade 
had appeared. Although three others were published 



AGRICULTURE 393 

during the next two years, not until 1909 did a text ap- 
pear written for use in the upper years of the high 
school. Many texts used by agricultural colleges have 
been found very usable in extensive secondary courses. 
The present need seems to be for a three or four book 
series, with topics and treatment graded for as many 
years, or for a series of booklets or teaching monographs 
on the various subdivisions of agriculture. This need 
is being met, in part, by the reports being issued by the 
committee just mentioned. 

Apparatus. — The equipment problem in agriculture is 
really little different from that in any science work, for 
some work in any science can be done with home-found 
materials, and is entitled to the same consideration as 
agriculture taught by the same means. In all cases it is 
largely a matter of ideals, arising from within or imposed 
from without. Much apparatus already bought may be 
shared with the agricultural department, notably com- 
pound microscopes, Bunsen burners or gasolene torches, 
balances, ringstands, reagents, and much glass-ware. 
If work of scientific dignity would be done, some appa- 
ratus peculiar to agriculture must be purchased, such as 
milk-testers and grafting, spraying, and gardening tools. 
A basement room will be found desirable for much of 
the work involving dirt and litter. The room provided 
for biology, chemistry, and physics will suffice for most of 
the other work if space is at a premium. 

Time. — "Lack of time" has almost equalled "lack of 
equipment" in numerous opinions about obstacles to 
the introduction and successful teaching of agriculture. 
However, a community that favors its introduction would 
doubtless sanction a sacrifice of time by some other study 
farther removed from the interests of its members. If 



394 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

agriculture cannot survive in the struggle for time on the 
school programme it must go down. More valid are the 
complaints regarding lack of time for field trips requir- 
ing more than single recitation periods. Instances can 
be cited, however, of principals taking an entire afternoon 
for trips that seemed profitable. Owners have gladly 
brought stock before the school and implements have 
been assembled in the building; but methods of farm man- 
agement, as shown by the standing crops, can only be stud- 
ied on the ground. Experiment stations conducted by 
the State close to the school have partly overcome this 
difficulty as well as that of managing a school demonstra- 
tion plot. The idea of doing on the part of the pupil is 
here lacking and must be provided for otherwise. 

Lack of time, both in the schedule and on the part of 
the teacher, may be remedied by a device too little used, 
that of having students of two successive years join in 
the same study, which alternates with another study the 
next year. 

Teachers. — One of the chief obstacles is that of the 
teacher. The one-year course devolves upon the science 
teacher or the superintendent. The former is often un- 
sympathetic, while the latter often lacks scientific train- 
ing. The best preparation we can reasonably expect, 
at present, is a good training in college science, supple- 
mented by summer school courses in agriculture, now 
offered in nearly every State. For the more pretentious 
courses an agricultural college training is almost a neces- 
sity, and some professional training is highly desirable. 
The graduate in agriculture, like the graduate in engi- 
neering, can command a better salary than school boards 
have yet been persuaded to pay. The supply has been 
so nearly absorbed by the demands of national and State 



AGRICULTURE 395 

agricultural departments and by the colleges themselves, 
and now by the many new special schools of agriculture, 
that general high schools are seldom able to enter the 
competition. For several years the salaries of agricult- 
ural college graduates accepting positions of all kinds 
have shown a strong central tendency slightly below nine 
hundred and fifty dollars for the first year out of college. 
It must also be considered that positions with the govern- 
ment, the college, and with dealers in agricultural sup- 
plies, all offer so much more in the way of promotion, 
travel, tenure, and independence, that the high school 
must offer stronger inducements than at present until the 
supply overtakes the demand. 



CHAPTER XXII 

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

Selby A. Moran, B.L. 

TEACHER OF COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 

Introductory Statement. — The growth of commercial 
education in this country during recent years has been 
phenomenal. Almost before schoolmen realized it, the 
commercial department became a permanent part of 
secondary education. How can we account for these 
new conditions which have come upon us so suddenly? 
The explanation seems quite simple. It is merely the 
culmination of a feeling which has been developing for 
a long time. Schoolmen have been unable to resist the 
growing opposition on the part of business men who be- 
lieved that our high schools were not giving the kind of 
training needed by the large majority of pupils who did 
not care to go to college. This feeling gradually grew 
into a determined spirit of antagonism and caused people 
boldly to demand that the high school train such pupils 
to do well some specific, practical thing. Something tan- 
gible was wanted, something that would fit the boy or girl 
to render some service that the world needed. If this 
could be done and at the same time give the pupils 
a training which would make possible a larger and more 
comprehensive life, so much the better. The advocates 
of commercial training seized the opportunity afforded 
by the situation to press the claim that the business course 
was the one that would best meet these demands. They 

396 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 397 

also claimed that commercial studies would appeal more 
strongly to young people of high school age than the 
general culture course and thus keep them in school for 
a longer time. So strong did the demand become that 
schoolmen gradually yielded, often against their judg- 
ment, and introduced business courses. The movement 
is gradually overcoming every kind of opposition and 
is receiving the most hearty approval of the public. 
Already it has won to its support many schoolmen who 
previously were strongly opposed to it. 

The marked success of the course from both the edu- 
cational and practical stand-points seems to prove the 
soundness of the position taken. That it has attained 
such success while passing through the experimental 
stage and while meeting the most bitter opposition, seems 
really remarkable and adds strength to the belief that the 
course possesses in the fullest degree the merit claimed 
for it. When the business course is more thoroughly de- 
veloped, when better methods of teaching these branches 
are devised, and more liberally educated teachers engage 
in this work, still more satisfactory results may be ex- 
pected. It will, however, take time to reach the high 
standard to which the leading advocates of business edu- 
cation aspire. 

Aims of Commercial Education. — The ideal high school 
commercial course has four distinct aims: 

First. — To offer a practical training that will induce a 
larger number of high school pupils to remain in school 
for a longer period. 

Second. — To equip young people as thoroughly as pos- 
sible to engage in business affairs. 

Third. — To make the course broad enough that the 
student, after completing it, may be able to stand upon 



398 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the same plane, intellectually and socially, as those with 
scientific or classical training. 

Fourth. — To have a sufficiently broad course and to 
teach the subject in such a thorough way that, should the 
student later elect to take a college course, he will have 
gained the necessary information and developed sufficient 
mental strength to do as efficient college work in his spe- 
cial field as students can do in other courses. 

A Practical Illustration. — In many of our better high 
schools these aims are to a large degree being realized. 
The commercial course in the Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
High School, 1 for example, aims to produce more than 
mere stenographers, book-keepers, or office helpers. Its 
ideal is to train young people to think; to prepare them 
to take bigger and broader views of the great commercial 
problems with which later they must deal. Thus trained, 
they are able, when they enter commercial life as account- 
ants, private secretaries, or in any other capacity, to 
make the most of the opportunities which come to them. 
This is possible because they are able to understand and 
analyze the principles underlying the conduct of commer- 
cial affairs and utilize the results to the best advantage. 
If, instead of going directly into business life, they wish 
to continue their education in college or university, they 
have the information and training necessary to enable 
them to carry on college work successfully. This becomes 
possible because the work in book-keeping and commer- 
cial arithmetic, for example, is handled the same as are 
courses in mathematics, which -in reality they are, though 
in a more concrete and applied form. The course in 
commercial correspondence, or business English, as it is 

1 1 speak of the course in this particular school because I am thor- 
oughly familiar with it. 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 399 

frequently called, is treated as a study of applied English; 
and just as high ideals are aimed at and just as thor- 
ough work is done as in courses I, II, III, or IV in the 
regular English department. The training in commercial 
geography, which is in large part industrial history, and 
thus really a study of history, is equal, from both the cult- 
ural and disciplinary points of view, to that of any course 
offered in the regular history department. The work in 
stenography, which is in fact a language study, though 
not generally recognized as such, is in many important 
respects quite as exacting and effective from the stand- 
point of mental training as the classics or modern lan- 
guages. I am aware that this claim will be vigorously 
disputed by most advocates of classical training. I have 
found, however, that, almost without exception, it is fully 
indorsed by every thorough student of the classics who 
has made an equally thorough study of the science of 
stenography. All the other commercial courses in this 
school are handled in a similar manner. 

Character and Success of Commercial Education. — An 
equally high grade of work is being done in many of the 
high schools throughout the country. I believe, there- 
fore, that it can justly be claimed that in our best schools, 
at least, we are realizing the ideal set by DeGarmo, of 
Cornell University, who said: "If he has equally efficient 
teachers and is supplied with equally good facilities, the 
student of the commercial course is not inferior to his 
brother in the arts course in the range of his education, 
in the quality of his discipline, in the dignity of his 
work or the worthiness of his destination." Such work 
has, in a large measure, overcome the opposition to busi- 
ness education which formerly was so bitterly waged 
against it by many of our leading schoolmen. It has 



400 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

also won to the support of the high school the sympathy 
of our big, broad-minded business men of the type of 
John Wanamaker, Andrew Carnegie, and Marshall Field, 
a sympathy and touch which before business education 
was introduced was almost entirely lacking. It has come 
to be almost universally conceded that it is and ever 
should be the business of our schools not only to 
keep in the closest possible touch with the world of busi- 
ness, but also to qualify their pupils to successfully per- 
form their part in it. The commercial course has been 
the one thing needed to supply this heretofore missing 
link between our schools and the business world. 

Business education in the high school proved so suc- 
cessful that there soon arose a demand that our colleges 
and universities offer advanced courses along commercial 
lines. As a result, all of our leading schools are offering 
such courses, some, like Harvard University, offering a 
splendid graduate course in business. The constantly 
increasing number of students enrolling for such advanced 
courses will soon silence the complaint voiced by the late 
Marshall Field that "The commercial world is starving 
for high-class material." 

Subjects in the Course. — What subjects should be in- 
cluded in a high school commercial course and how much 
time should be devoted to each is, and always will be, a 
debatable question. Probably the most carefully pre- 
pared material on this feature of commercial education in 
secondary schools may be found in the report of the Com- 
mittee of Nine of the National Education Association 1 
and the papers discussing it by James J. Sheppard, prin- 
cipal of the New York High School of Commerce; Ber- 

1 "Professional Education in the United States," Bulletin No. 23, series 
K, University of the State of New York, Albany. 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 401 

trand DeR. Parker, principal of the Rock ford, Illinois, 
High School, and J. Remson Bishop, principal of the 
Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1 

The purely commercial subjects suggested in the re- 
port of the Committee of Nine are practically as follows : 
Commercial law, civil government, political economy, 
book-keeping, accounting, commercial arithmetic, com- 
mercial geography, industrial history, commercial cor- 
respondence, penmanship, stenography, and typewriting. 

To these, I believe, transportation, advertising, sales- 
manship, and ethics should be added. The first three 
are subjects with which every business man must deal, 
since upon the proper handling of these features of his 
business, much of his material success will depend. The 
subject of ethics is one of special importance in the busi- 
ness world of to-day. In this age of immense trusts and 
corporate greed, it is particularly needful that the schools 
do their full duty in instilling proper ideals of justice and 
integrity and in developing in their pupils a due regard 
for the rights of others. 

To the purely business subjects might well be added 
one or more of the modern languages. Our growing 
commercial relations with other nations is making more 
and more important the study of Spanish, German, and 
French. It is quite possible that Japanese and Chinese 
may soon become equally important. One danger to be 
avoided in the selection of subjects other than the purely 
commercial branches is that too many may be added. 
I believe that this feature of the report of the Committee 
of Nine might justly be criticised. Fewer subjects and 
more time given to each one would produce better results 

1 These papers appear in the Journal of the National Education A sso- 
ciation, 1904. 



402 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

and disarm much of the criticism which is frequently, and, 
I believe, justly, made upon the work done in many high 
school commercial departments. 

Importance of Stenography. — There seems to be a 
very general misconception on the part of young people, 
especially young men, as to the value which a thorough 
knowledge of stenography would be to them. Many 
high school and university people often fail to appreciate 
the educational as well as the commercial value of sten- 
ography. This is no doubt due to lack of a definite 
knowledge of the subject. I think it worth while, there- 
fore, to discuss it somewhat at length. 

Stenography, viewed from the commercial stand-point, 
is included in this course for three reasons: (i) It en- 
ables young people at the very beginning of their com- 
mercial life to earn a better salary than they could hope 
to secure as mere beginners in any other position. (2) 
It affords excellent opportunities to acquire, in a rapid 
and thorough-going way, a definite knowledge of every 
detail of the business in which one may be engaged, 
and at the same time enables one to gain a broader 
vision of the principles underlying business transactions. 
(3) It offers every possible opportunity for young people 
to show their understanding of business affairs and to 
secure promotion to important and responsible positions 
much sooner than would otherwise be possible. 

There are in the commercial world to-day so many 
illustrious examples of prominent men who owe their suc- 
cessful start in life wholly to the opportunities afforded 
them in positions as private secretaries, that there seems 
to be small need to discuss at length this feature of the 
subject. The following quotation from an address re- 
cently delivered by President William H. P. Faunce, of 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 403 

Brown University, before the graduating class of the 
University of Michigan, bears directly on this phase of 
the subject. President Faunce said: "Another calling 
which few young men are equipped to enter is that of 
private secretary. Somehow, our ablest young men have 
thought of stenography as suited only to girls in their 
teens, and secretarial duties as furnishing small field for 
ambition. Quite the contrary is the case. The private 
secretary of Grover Cleveland left his imprint on our 
country. The private secretaries of William McKinley 
and Theodore Roosevelt very speedily emerged into pub- 
lic life. The great need of every young man when he 
gets out of school is to go into training under a master. 
The private secretary to a strong, resourceful leader of 
men has the finest training a country can afford, has 
opportunity for large horizon, mastery of methods, and, 
later, for an independent career." 

Stenography, when properly taught and thoroughly 
mastered, has even greater value, considered from a 
purely educational stand-point. To become even a mod- 
erately successful stenographer one must have training 
along several lines, each one of which has large educa- 
tional value. These are as follows : (i) It compels one 
to think quickly and accurately. It is of great value to 
any one to be thoroughly awakened mentally and to have 
acquired power to think clearly. (2) The scientific study 
and practice of stenography compels the development of 
greater ability to hear things accurately. The inability 
of the average high school and college student to hear 
all that he should and hear it accurately is really appall- 
ing. Stenography, more than any other study, will very 
largely overcome this almost universal weakness. (3) 
Mastering the technic of memorizing is an especially 



404 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

important feature which results from the thorough train- 
ing of this subject. I do not know of any other subject 
which affords an equally valuable and specific training. 
(4) The most important mental training resulting directly 
from this study is the development of ability to concen- 
trate the whole mind upon the work in hand. If the 
average high school or university student possessed prop- 
erly developed ability to concentrate his entire atten- 
tion upon his studies and do it continuously for as long a 
period as the average mind is actually able to sustain the 
effort, he could easily complete the four-year high school 
course or the four-year university course in three years, 
or even less time, and not overwork. Professor William 
A. Hadley recently said: "The teachers of the fourth- 
year pupils in the Boston High School find that the pupils 
who have taken stenography have the power of attention 
and concentration best developed of any who come to 
them." Since the study of stenography is especially 
valuable in developing such power, it seems that there 
should be no question as to the advisability of introduc- 
ing this subject in every high school, not only as a part of 
the commercial course, but also as a regular discipli- 
nary study. 

Text-Books. — The text-books in use in teaching the 
commercial branches have, in most cases, kept pace with 
the progress of the time. In nearly all lines of commer- 
cial work the teacher is able to obtain texts that are 
modern in their methods and based upon recognized 
pedagogical principles. Unfortunately, this cannot be 
said of the majority of stenographic text-books now in 
use. While the texts on this subject are decidedly better 
than those of fifteen or twenty years ago, there is still 
large room for improvement. The reason for this is 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 405 

quite evident. In many cases the writers of stenographic 
text-books have been men with limited education and 
no special aptitude for such work. In most instances 
the authors have been men with large practical experience 
who have seemed to think that ability to do reporting im- 
plied a fitness to write text-books on the subject. This 
is a combination of qualities which rarely exists, even 
in a moderate degree, in any individual. The dispo- 
sition to cater to the popular demand for a short course 
is another thing that has had a very detrimental effect 
upon the grade of stenographic text-books being produced 
to-day. While this has resulted in eliminating much of 
the lumber which encumbered the older texts, this de- 
mand for a course brief enough to enable one to begin 
earning a salary within a few months after taking up the 
study has caused many text-book writers to go to the 
extreme limit. Many of the texts on the subject have 
been made so brief that the mastery of them cannot possi- 
bly produce creditable results. It has apparently caused 
the majority of stenographic text-book writers and 
teachers to forget that it takes time to enable the student 
to do skilled work. Many teachers find it necessary to 
supplement the brief and inadequate texts they are 
obliged to use. There is also much confusion resulting 
from the lack of uniformity in the principles as presented 
in the different texts on each of the various systems of 
stenography. This latter feature interferes seriously with 
the proper development of the pedagogy of the subject. 
Office Exhibits and Appliances. — There has been very 
satisfactory progress in the development of commercial 
exhibits and mechanical appliances for use in commer- 
cial work and available for instruction purposes. Schools 
may obtain at moderate cost excellent exhibits of raw 



406 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

material of agricultural and mineral products of this and 
other countries. Exhibits especially prepared for high 
school purposes and suitable for such use add greatly to 
the interest of the student in his work and give him an 
opportunity to study at first-hand the nature and char- 
acter of the material with which he will have so much 
to do in his real life work. In the line of office appli- 
ances the commercial teacher is especially fortunate in 
having available excellent devices of every description. 
Among these may be mentioned loose-leaf record books in 
great variety, filing cabinets, adding and listing machines, 
letter-copying presses, typewriters, duplicators, envelope 
sealers, stamp-affixing machines, addressing machines, 
time records, card indexes, numbering machines, change- 
making machines, check protectors, etc. The only defect 
deserving of mention in these appliances is in the type- 
writer. I refer to the unscientific arrangement of the 
letters upon the key-board; and the lack of entire uni- 
formity of arrangement of the keys on the different ma- 
chines in common use. It is unfortunate that such an 
arrangement was originally adopted. The use of the 
typewriter, however, has become so general that it is 
practically impossible to make the desired change, no 
matter how beneficial such a change might be. 

Better Preliminary Preparation. — The advocates of com- 
mercial education have come to recognize the desira- 
bility of as thorough preparation as possible by the 
student before beginning the work on the commercial 
branches. Those who have given the matter careful con- 
sideration are generally agreed that the later in the high 
school course the commercial studies are introduced the 
better. The reasons are: (i) Placing it late in the 
course acts as an incentive to the student who wishes to 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 407 

study business subjects to make the required prepara- 
tion in order to be allowed to enter the commercial de- 
partment. (2) The student taking this work during his 
third and fourth years is better able to thoroughly under- 
stand the subject-matter and the importance of mastering 
it as completely as possible. (3) The student is better 
able to use his knowledge than would be possible if these 
branches were studied during the earlier part of his high 
school course. 

Obstacles to Be Overcome. — While the progress of com- 
mercial education has been exceedingly creditable, still 
greater development is possible. The obstacles which 
still stand in the way of greater progress are: (1) The 
fact that many influential schoolmen still hold the idea 
that the commercial studies are not truly educational. 
This objection is rapidly disappearing as people come to 
realize more fully that the subject studied is not the only 
test of educational value, but that the manner in which 
it is taught, the thoroughness with which it is studied, 
and the interest which the student takes in his work 
are quite as important factors as the subject itself when 
considering educational values. (2) The instruction in 
these branches during the past half-century in the so- 
called commercial colleges has in the large majority of 
cases been discreditable, because it has not been of a grade 
to gain the recognition and respect which these subjects, 
when properly taught, really deserve. The introduction 
of business education in high schools, with the better 
teaching which has resulted and the decided improve- 
ment which is being made in the quality of teaching in 
the better class of private schools, is rapidly overcoming 
this obstacle. (3) The lack of generally accepted canons 
as to how the commercial subjects may be taught to the 



408 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

best advantage is a really serious objection which will 
require time to overcome. It is certainly a credit to those 
who have been and are engaged in this work that such 
splendid results have been produced under such adverse 
circumstances. (4) The lack of opportunity for the 
commercial teacher to obtain special training in his line 
of work. Only a small number of our colleges and nor- 
mal schools are thus far prepared to offer courses of this 
kind, and those offered are of necessity largely experi- 
mental. Fortunately, all of these obstacles are being 
overcome and, as a result, commercial education is gain- 
ing the respect and influence to which it is entitled. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL AND ITS 
RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING 

E. C. Warriner, A.B. 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAGEMAW, MICHIGAN 

The Demand for Vocational Training. — Vocational 
training is that sort of training which has for its purpose 
definite preparation for earning a living. As an aim of 
the high school, this represents a distinctly new point of 
view. The aim of education has perhaps always been 
regarded as preparation for life, but for life in a general 
sense. Schools have heretofore been regarded as cult- 
ural in their aim. To-day many desire the schools to 
be vocational, to teach trades or callings. In a very 
broad way, education has always been connected with 
vocation in that the mental training or discipline gained 
from study in school is capital for any occupation which 
one may enter. During the last generation, however, the 
conception has developed that formal discipline, or the 
ability to turn a general training of observation, memory, 
or reason to specific ends, is not so tenable a doctrine 
as it had formerly been considered. One result of the 
weakening of this theory in popular esteem has been an 
insistent demand for courses of study of a specific char- 
acter, preparatory to definite activities after the period of 
school life. Society has become impatient of the time 
required to pursue courses designed for general culture 

409 



410 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

alone and has demanded what is called a more practical 
education. It is only within the past decade, however, 
that this demand has had any appreciable effect upon 
high school courses of study. Up to the close of the nine- 
teenth century, the avowed purpose of all high school in- 
struction was general in its nature, preparing for life, to 
be sure, but for life in a broad sense, not specifically for 
earning a livelihood. But during the first ten years of 
the twentieth century there has been a marked tendency 
to offer vocational courses in high schools. 

The Commercial Course. — A good illustration of voca- 
tional training in the high school is the commercial course. 
This was the first concession made by high schools to the 
cry of the public for the practical in education. The 
commercial course as at first introduced included com- 
mercial arithmetic, book-keeping, English, algebra, and 
history. In order to appeal to a class of students who 
could not be expected to remain in the high school for 
the regular four-years' period, either from financial or 
other reasons, the commercial course was made a two- 
year or a three-year course and some high schools gradu- 
ated students with diplomas at the end of these short 
courses. The first effect of these shorter courses, paral- 
leling part way the full four-years' course, was to cheapen 
the commercial course in the eyes of the educational 
world, and consequently to lower high school standards 
of scholarship. To-day, commercial courses in our larger 
high schools are four years in length and they include, in 
addition to the studies named above, commercial geog- 
raphy, commercial history, political economy, commer- 
cial law, business practice, stenography, and type- writing. 
The aim of these courses is distinctly vocational and 
their graduates are able to step immediately from the 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 411 

school into offices and counting-rooms. Another defi- 
nite vocational high school course is that which aims 
to prepare school-teachers. In some cities the high 
school offers a course of psychology for teachers to aid 
in preparing those students who wish to become teach- 
ers in these school systems. The State of Nebraska 
has an arrangement by which a certain number of high 
schools which offer a course in teacher training may re- 
ceive State aid to an amount of three hundred and fifty 
dollars a year. Agricultural courses offer a third illustra- 
tion of vocational training in the high school. 

Present-Day Tendencies. — Present-day tendencies to- 
ward vocational training in our high schools, however, 
centre about those occupations which have to do with 
the mechanic arts for boys and home-making activities 
for girls. This condition is a direct outgrowth of the man- 
ual training movement which has swept over the United 
States during the past generation. Among the educa- 
tional exhibits at the Centennial Exposition at Phila- 
delphia, in 1876, was a showing of the work of the Mos- 
cow Technical School. This exhibit attracted much atten- 
tion and made a deep impression upon the American 
educational public. At that time, nothing in the nature 
of hand training existed in the secondary schools of this 
country; but, inspired by this Russian exhibit and moved 
by the need of this sort of training for those who were to 
develop the resources of our land, manual training high 
schools made their appearance. The first manual train- 
ing high school in the United States was established in 
connection with Washington University, St. Louis, Mis- 
souri, in 1880. The Chicago Manual Training School 
was established in 1884 by the Commercial Club of Chi- 
cago to prepare young men for technological colleges as 



412 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

well as for entrance upon mechanical pursuits. This 
school had a marked influence on the history of manual 
training and was finally, in 1897, incorporated in the Uni- 
versity of Chicago. 

The essential features of these early manual training 
schools were shop equipments for work in both wood 
and iron. The wood-working shops were fitted out for 
cabinet-making and joinery, while the equipment for 
iron-work included a forge shop and a machine shop with 
the typical machine tools. The early courses of study re- 
quired the making, for the most part, of various exercises, 
or models, as they were called, designed to teach the use 
of the different wood and iron working tools. Planing 
and boring exercises and the different kinds of joints were 
made in the wood shops, with drawing out, upsetting, and 
welding in the forge, and lathe exercises in the machine 
shop. The primary aim in these courses was general, not 
specific; cultural, not vocational. It was, to be sure, a 
culture gained by the use of a new sort of material, but 
the essentials insisted on were keenness of observation 
and accuracy of execution. 

The Need for Vocational Training. — In the past ten 
years, however, the vocational aim has been rising into 
prominence. Undoubtedly, the strong materialistic ten- 
dency of the present age has had much to do with this rise. 
The question cui bono? insistently challenges every idea 
to-day, and the manual training course of study has not 
escaped the challenge. Mental growth, the effect of any 
course of study on the development of the intellect, is 
hard to measure. The things of the spirit are elusive 
when it comes to defining them in terms of the yard- 
stick. The advocates of manual training have not always 
been able to point to concrete results in school sufficiently 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 413 

striking to justify the early claims for its incorporation 
into the course of study. It has not been conclusively 
shown that intellectual stamina has been developed by 
manual training of different calibre from that built up 
by the study of the ordinary school subjects. The train- 
ing in deftness of hand has, however, been marked. This 
result is so desirable and is so valuable an asset for any 
and all walks in life that no one suggests to-day the elim- 
ination of manual training from our courses of study. 
The tendency is rather to emphasize in a greater degree 
this skill of hand and to organize in the schools courses 
which shall train the hand for a particular line of activity, 
in short, for a life vocation. A second and more funda- 
mental reason for the rise of vocational training emerges 
out of the democratic spirit. The spirit of democracy, 
which is a regard for the individual's rights and capaci- 
ties, is steadily growing, the world over. This spirit 
has a vital influence on education. Men differ in their 
ability, both mental and physical, and in their tastes and 
aptitudes. Therefore, their education should vary in 
accordance with these differences. The highest ideal of 
life is the development of each individual to his fullest 
capacity. Especially in a republic, where every man has 
the privilege, equally with every other, of being a ruler, 
each man's freest development should be the ultimate 
goal. For this development education stands and schools 
are established. Because the individual units in the 
schools differ among themselves, the schools which train 
them should differ. The first years of school should 
teach the same things to all children; they should give 
the tools of learning, ability to read, to write, and to 
cipher. At the ages from twelve to sixteen (authorities 
differ as to the wisest time) education should be differ- 



414 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

entiated. Those whose life activity is to be predomi- 
nantly mental should go forward to study from books and 
in laboratories. Those who are to be the toilers of the 
world, who are to make their living primarily with their 
hands, should be given an education or a training for the 
most part in shops, in actual contact with things. By 
this course of reasoning, the conclusion is reached that 
different kinds of vocational schools or courses should be 
provided to meet the varying needs of the individuals of 
a democratic society. 

The Duty of the State. — Granted that schools should 
differ, the practical question soon arises as to the duty of 
the State in providing at public expense these different 
types of schools. Is it possible for the State to train 
for every occupation, when occupations are so varied? 
Should not the individual's preparation for bread-winning 
be left to his own initiative ? Is there not danger of weak- 
ening the will and of bringing up a generation which 
will look to a paternalistic State for everything, if the 
policy of State-supported vocational schools is adopted? 
These are queries which inevitably confront those who 
consider this subject. They cannot be definitely and 
finally answered as yet. We are in an unsettled stage 
as regards vocational training in the public schools. 
Many theories are held and many experiments are going 
on to test the wisdom of these policies. At the present 
time, the idea of vocational training is popular. The 
people are willing to spend money for such training, but 
the provisions already made must be regarded as tenta- 
tive and experimental. The American people will un- 
doubtedly support any movement for the promotion of 
the general welfare. If, then, the result of study and re- 
flection and of actual trials proves to the satisfaction of 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 415 

the public that vocational schools and vocational train- 
ing in the high school make for the prosperity of the 
country, our public school system will, beyond question, 
be reorganized so as to train for definite callings. An 
occupation in life is absolutely essential to every one. 
The world has no place for the idle. "If one will not 
work, neither shall he eat." These are fundamental 
principles. The State, therefore, should see to it that 
every one is trained for an occupation. Many States of 
the Union have committed themselves definitely to voca- 
tional education in the higher realms by the establish- 
ment of State universities where are trained, at public 
expense, lawyers, physicians, dentists, engineers, teach- 
ers, etc. The only reason for providing such training 
by the State, and omitting the training for the ordinary 
trades of the world, such as those of the carpenter, 
plumber, or bricklayer, is that the professions are more 
necessary to the welfare of the State. This proposition 
would be difficult to substantiate. From this point of 
view, then, either the State must abandon its long-estab- 
lished policy of educating for the professions or it must 
enlarge the scope of its endeavors so as to train its hum- 
blest citizen to the limit of his capacity. Judging from 
present conditions and tendencies, the latter will be the 
alternative chosen. 

The Elementary School. — At this moment the move- 
ment toward vocational training at public expense is 
more marked in the region of the elementary school than 
in that of the high school. At least three States, Massa- 
chusetts, New York and Wisconsin, have already enacted 
laws providing State aid to communities which establish 
trade or vocational schools. The State of Massachusetts 
pays half the running expenses of such a school, while 



416 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

New York pays five hundred dollars for the first teacher 
and two hundred dollars for each additional teacher. 
Worcester, Springfield, Newton, Lawrence, Beverly, and 
New Bedford, in Massachusetts, and Rochester, Albany, 
and New York City, in New York, are among the com- 
munities which have opened schools under these statutes. 
Boys are admitted at the age of fourteen and are taught 
for two years the rudiments of such trades as carpentry, 
plumbing, printing, electrical construction, and machine- 
shop practice. This instruction for two years shortens by 
so much the period of apprenticeship for those who enter 
the factory at sixteen. The Worcester (Massachusetts) 
Trade School offers a four-year course, and aims to 
train competent journeyman machinists, cabinet-makers, 
and pattern-makers. The Wisconsin legislature of 191 1 
passed a law giving State aid to communities which es- 
tablish industrial, commercial, continuation, and evening 
schools. This State aid amounts to one half the total 
cost of the school. 

The High School. — The high school has not responded 
so quickly to the public demand for vocational training 
as the elementary school. But few high schools are to- 
day offering courses which are avowedly vocational, ex- 
cept the commercial, teacher-training, and agricultural 
courses, already spoken of. A few definitely vocational 
courses are to be noted here and there over the country. 
The high school at Menomonie, Wisconsin, offers courses 
in architectural drafting, machine drafting, machine- 
shop practice, plumbing, and bricklaying, for pupils in 
the last two years of the high school, which approximate 
trade courses. The mechanical work of the first two 
years in the Menomonie High School comprises joinery, 
wood-turning, pattern-making and foundry-practice, and 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 417 

mechanical drawing. The drawing of these two years 
is preliminary to special trade training, designed to give 
familiarity with the shop tools used in the ordinary fac- 
tory. It is, therefore, general in its character, while the 
work of the last two high school years is special, pre- 
paring for the trades mentioned. The courses for girls 
in cooking and sewing in the Menomonie High School, or 
in domestic science and domestic art, as the present 
broadened courses in these subjects should more properly 
be called, are elaborately worked out. The domestic 
science course includes, besides cooking and sewing, a 
study of food values, dietaries, marketing, household 
management — comprising sanitation and ventilation, ar- 
tistic furnishing of the home, keeping of household ac- 
counts, the problem of domestic labor, and apportion- 
ment of income. The domestic art course takes up 
plain sewing and garment-making, dress-making, milli- 
nery, and art needle-work. These courses for the girls 
are vocational in the best sense, preparing the high school 
girl for home-making, which will be the life vocation of 
most of them. 

Spread of the Movement. — The Menomonie High 
School is typical of an increasing number of high schools 
throughout the United States. Wherever high schools 
have introduced so-called manual training or industrial 
courses side by side with the ordinary or academic 
courses, the development of these new courses has been 
similar to that described above. In the Eastern, North 
Central, and Western States, the majority of high 
schools in cities of more than twenty-five thousand in- 
habitants are to-day giving such instruction, while the 
movement is rapidly spreading to include the smaller 
cities. In more than half of the one thousand three 



418 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

hundred and forty-eight cities in the United States, hav- 
ing four thousand inhabitants and over, manual train- 
ing finds a place in the public-school system, according 
to the report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation for 1908-9. While these courses are not often 
described as vocational, they certainly have a closer con- 
nection with life outside the school than the cultural 
courses of the old high school. 

Practical Difficulties in Organizing Trade Instruction. — 
One serious obstacle in the way of giving trade instruction 
in the public schools is the great diversity of occupations. 
The school cannot undertake to turn out tradesmen for 
every trade, as the numbers preparing for the separate 
trades would be so small in all save the largest cities as to 
make the employment of special teachers for each group 
a financial impossibility. Many pupils of the high school 
age have not yet determined upon their life pursuit. 
However desirable it may be for youth at as early a period 
as possible to settle upon their life work, the spirit of 
democracy keeps alive the young man's ambition and 
keeps open the way before him, so that much experi- 
mentation is gone through before the youth finally settles 
down to his permanent calling. Such being the con- 
ditions in our society, the most feasible policy for high 
schools to follow in vocational training would seem to 
be to afford instruction in the fundamental processes of 
all trades, namely, wood and iron, together with busi- 
ness training, now given under the head of commercial 
courses. Such instruction as is now offered in the Me- 
nomonie and similar high schools helps the youth to find 
himself vocationally and gives him, besides, a training 
in the elements of any calling which deals with wood, 
iron, or commercial paper. At the same time, in certain 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 419 

localities where the industries of the community are well- 
defined and specialized, as the textile industry at New 
Bedford, and the machine tool industry at Cincinnati, 
the schools may well emphasize industrial courses which 
will prepare for the vocations of the community. 

Co-operation Between High School and Factory. — A 
plan of co-operation between the high school and the 
factory for carrying on vocational training is receiving 
much attention at the present time. This scheme was 
first worked out by Dean Herman Schneider of the engi- 
neering department of the University of Cincinnati, for 
the purpose of giving engineering students actual prac- 
tice in machine shops, co-ordinately with their theoreti- 
cal study in the university. The plan was first put into 
operation in a high school in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, 
in the fall of 1908. In the Fitchburg Plan, as it is now 
called, the co-operative and industrial course is four years 
long, the first year consisting of all school work, as fol- 
lows: English, arithmetic, algebra, and drawing, both 
free-hand and mechanical. At the beginning of the 
second high school year, the boys taking this course 
are divided into pairs and half their time is spent in the 
school and half in those factories of the city which are co- 
operating in this movement. One boy of the pair spends 
a week in school while his mate is in the shop; the second 
week, places are exchanged, the boy who was in school 
the first week going to the shop the second week and the 
boy from the shop to the school. This plan continues for 
three years. The boys sign an apprenticeship agreement 
and are paid apprentice's wages for the time spent in 
the shop. The shop work is the ordinary practice of 
a machinist's apprentice in the operation of the drill, 
the lathe, the planer, shaper, and milling machine, to- 



420 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

gether with bench and floor work. The school work 
includes English, shop mathematics, comprising algebra 
and geometry, physics, chemistry, mechanism of ma- 
chines, drawing, civics, and first aid to the injured. This 
course is avowedly and specifically vocational and has 
the advantage of combining in equal amount theory and 
practice. The boys who complete this course will be 
both practical and theoretical machinists. 

Technical Arts High Schools. — Besides the plans for 
vocational instruction already described, namely, the 
introduction of vocational courses or semi-vocational 
courses in existing high schools, side by side with aca- 
demic courses, and the Fitchburg co-operative plan, a 
third tendency has been marked in the past fifteen years. 
This is the establishment, in cities large enough to need 
more than one high school, of technical, commercial, and 
practical arts high schools, such as the Indianapolis Man- 
ual Training High School, the Crane and Lane Tech- 
nical High Schools of Chicago, the Cleveland Techni- 
cal High School, the Boston High School of Commerce, 
and the Washington Irving Technical High School for 
Girls of New York City. The earlier schools of this 
kind, like the Indianapolis Manual Training High 
School, which was opened in 1895, were semi- vocational. 
Their courses, that is to say, gave large opportunity for 
shop work and drawing for boys and for cooking and 
sewing for girls, but they did not definitely say that they 
would prepa're their students for life vocations. Many 
of their graduates have gone forward to schools of engi- 
neering, while the great majority of them have taken up 
some mechanical pursuit for which their high school 
course was a preparation, more or less direct. The ten- 
dency in such schools seems to be, however, increasingly 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 421 

toward specific vocational ends. The Cleveland Techni- 
cal High School, for example, states its immediate ends 
as follows: "(i) To prepare youth of both sexes for a 
definite vocation and for efficient industrial citizenship; 
(2) to help men and women already engaged in a voca- 
tion to better their condition by increasing their technical 
knowledge and skill." The plan adopted for preparing 
boys for definite vocations in this school is, first, to give 
them a general but intensive course in manual training 
for two years, consisting of turning, cabinet-making, 
pattern-making and foundry practice and forging. At 
the end of two years, if peculiar adaptability in any given 
direction becomes evident to pupil, parent, or teacher, 
specialization along this line is permitted in order that 
upon graduation a pupil may be better fitted for his life 
work. The Boston High School of Commerce was cre- 
ated to give boys a specific preparation for commercial 
life. It aims throughout to develop a commercial spirit 
and aptitude for business. The course of study permits 
a choice of subjects that will enable a pupil to prepare 
for one of the three larger divisions of the commercial 
field, namely, secretarial work, buying and selling, and 
accounting. Besides the usual subjects taught in com- 
mercial courses, such as arithmetic, book-keeping, ste- 
nography, and type-writing, the broad character of this 
school may be noted from mention of the following 
branches of study: commercial geography, local indus- 
tries, economic history, commercial law, commercial de- 
sign, business organization, commercial policy, account- 
ing and auditing, consular service, Spanish, French, and 
German. The students are taken from time to time to 
visit the commercial institutions of Boston, and, during 
the summer vacation, the school secures positions for its 



422 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

students in offices, thus carrying out a practical sort of 
co-operation between the school and the business world. 
The Washington Irving High School for Girls, in New 
York City, is a vocational school which offers three- 
year technical courses, designed to prepare its graduates 
for the following occupations: stenographers and type- 
writers, dress-makers and embroiderers, milliners, de- 
signers, printers, bookbinders, and library assistants. 
The Boston High School of Practical Arts for girls has 
a four-years course in both academic and industrial sub- 
jects. The industrial department offers three courses: 
dress-making, millinery, and household science, aiming 
to give ideals, taste, and skill which shall have money- 
earning value for the possessor. 

Agricultural High Schools. — Agricultural courses in 
high schools and special agricultural high schools are 
another type of vocational training, advocated widely 
throughout the United States at the present time. The 
States of Minnesota and Michigan have adopted the 
policy of offering agricultural courses in high schools al- 
ready existing in rural communities or small cities. This 
course includes a study of soils, seed selection, crop rota- 
tion, animal husbandry, fertilizers, and farm accounts. 
Wisconsin has set up five county agricultural high schools 
to the support of each of which the State contributes 
four thousand dollars a year. The Southern States, not- 
ably Georgia and Alabama, have established an agri- 
cultural high school in each congressional district. But, 
as in the case of industrial high schools, the choice between 
separate agricultural schools and agricultural courses in 
ordinary high schools is not yet definitely made. 

Three Lines of Tendency. — Three distinct lines of ten- 
dency are thus marked out in vocational training in sec- 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 423 

ondary schools: (i) vocational or semi-vocational courses, 
side by side with the traditional academic courses, (2) 
co-operative courses between the high schools and the 
factory, and (3) the separate high school, specially voca- 
tional in its aim. The future development of vocational 
training in high schools will undoubtedly be along these 
same lines. In the larger cities, where several high 
schools are required to accommodate all the secondary 
pupils, special technical or vocational high schools are 
bound to spring up and persist. Some have seen a men- 
ace to ideals of democracy in this segregation of our 
youth, fearing that the result would be a development of 
classes leading to ill feeling and caste. But democracy 
can never mean equality in intellect or ability; it can only 
mean equality of opportunity. The call for vocational 
training, both below the high school and within it, is the 
most democratic movement of the age, because it brings 
the service of the public schools to every boy and girl 
whatever their tastes and aptitudes. The highest educa- 
tional ideal must be the utmost development of which 
the individual is capable in the direction which the in- 
dividual chooses. This is just what elementary trade 
schools and vocational secondary schools will offer. As 
long as the way is open at the top for the individual to 
go on to a broader training, vocational schools will not 
develop caste. It is too early in its history to predict 
the fate of the co-operative school, but the idea to carry 
on simultaneously theoretical instruction and shop prac- 
tice under actual factory conditions seems sensible and 
practical. Without question, the third type of vocational 
training described is bound to spread most widely, 
namely, the introduction of special vocational courses as 
a part of the curriculum of the high school in the ordinary 



424 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

city, especially where shop and laboratory equipments 
are added to the school. It would seem feasible for such 
high schools to offer satisfactory vocational courses in 
the following occupations: clerks, book-keepers, stenog- 
raphers and type-writers, draughtsmen, electricians, au- 
tomobile workmen, machinists, pattern-makers, dress- 
makers, milliners, house-keepers, lunch-room assistants. 
To this list may be easily added other industries de- 
manded by local conditions, such as textile workers, pot- 
tery workers, cabinet-makers, etc. But the above list of 
occupations is general in its character, applicable to living 
conditions everywhere. 

Result of Vocational Trend in Education. — A marked 
result of the vocational trend in education is the modifi- 
cation of the traditional cultural courses in our high 
schools. The point of view of these courses has in the 
past two decades been severely criticized as being ex- 
cessively academic, as looking within and away from 
life outside school walls and concentrating energy on 
refinements of scholarship rather than on service to hu- 
manity. In this criticism, the college and university 
have been charged as chief offenders in their prescription 
of entrance requirements, which prevent youths from 
following the bent of their natural tastes and native capac- 
ities. Great changes have been made in these college 
entrance requirements in conformity with the spirit of the 
times. Whereas, a generation ago, a youth to enter col- 
lege must offer preparation in Latin, Greek, and mathe- 
matics before everything else, to-day many options are 
granted. Certain constants are still required but these 
are not the same as they were twenty-five years ago. 
Practically the only constants now are English, algebra, 
and geometry, to which is added a wide choice of elective 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 425 

requirements, including modern languages, classics, his- 
tory, and science. At the present moment the colleges 
are besieged with the demand to accept for entrance any 
high school subject whatsoever when it has been studied 
seriously and thoroughly. The colleges and universities 
have not yet capitulated to this demand, but the attack 
well illustrates the effect of the vocational emphasis. 
The vocational courses offered in the ordinary high school 
have not as yet been widely accepted as fit preparation for 
entrance to college, but the presence of these courses side 
by side with college entrance courses has had an influence 
on the point of view and methods of teaching of the 
latter. In physics, chemistry, botany, modern languages, 
one notes a well-marked tendency to give instruction 
which shall touch the world outside the school. Two 
courses in physics have been proposed in certain high 
schools, one based exclusively upon measurements and 
preparing for college, the other aiming to give a practical 
acquaintance with the every-day uses of light, sound, and 
electricity. Chemistry is treated as industrial chemistry 
and the chemistry of foods. Botany leans toward agri- 
culture and studies plant diseases as well as plant struct- 
ure, while German and French are taught in many high 
schools by a natural method, with a definite attempt 
to equip the student for using them in conversation. 
Whether colleges will accept this practical view of high 
school methods as fit preparation for advanced study or 
not is, as yet, an open question; but no doubt can exist 
as to the effect of the trend toward vocational training 
on educational thought in both high school and college. 
Vocational Guidance. — An interesting development in 
connection with the training of youth is the recent move- 
ment for vocational guidance. This is an attempt to 



426 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

provide means for enabling young men and women to 
give some study to that most important of all decisions, 
the selection of one's life occupation. Young men the 
world over have in the past chosen the calling of their 
fathers, or, upon arriving at the proper age for entering 
the productive field, have followed the line of least resist- 
ance and taken up the work which lay nearest at hand. 
The result has been choices of occupations by chance, 
with many misfits and failures in life. With the growth 
of the conviction that education should fit directly and 
specifically for life's activities, has developed irresistibly 
the truth that the school cannot prepare a youth for a 
vocation unless the youth knows what vocation he wishes 
to follow. This is too important a matter to be left to the 
whim of the boy, or to chance ; hence the movement for 
vocational guidance. The method to be used in this at- 
tempt is the study of the different types of life activities 
in which men find themselves. For this purpose, the 
library may be consulted and books descriptive of indus- 
tries and occupations read. Excursions to factories and 
business centres may be taken, which shall disclose to 
the growing boy both the desirable and the undesirable 
features of various callings. Addresses may be given by 
business and professional men, telling of the needs of 
their vocations and of the demands upon those who 
choose to enter them. Teachers and parents should 
make a more systematic study of the youth's abilities 
and characteristics, so that the advice which these leaders 
of youth naturally give may have a basis in fact, and not 
be merely guesswork. If vocational training is to be the 
educational policy of the future, vocational guidance is 
absolutely necessary to the security of any permanently 
valuable results from school training for life occupations. 



VOCATIONAL TRAINING 427 

Summary. — To summarize this chapter: the tendency 
is strong to require of secondary schools a closer articu- 
lation with life outside of the schoolroom. While this 
tendency is influencing the high school in every depart- 
ment and making over its thought and methods of in- 
struction, vocational training is entering the school in 
three ways: (i) by the introduction of studies, vocational 
or semi-vocational in character, in the existing type of 
high school (2) by co-operative courses of study between 
the school and the factory (3) by the establishment 
of special high schools, distinctively vocational in aim. 
While it is impossible to predict the future, it is alto- 
gether probable that the vocational trend will be perma- 
nent and that secondary schools from now forward will 
study more carefully than in the past the future occupa- 
tions of their students and plan their courses of study 
accordingly. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 

Charlotte Joy Farnsworth, Ph. B. 

PRECEPTRESS OF HORACE MANN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

Double Aspect of High School Subjects — Theoretical 
and Practical. — Broadly speaking, the work done in high 
schools may be divided into two main groups, one deal- 
ing with principles, which may be called theoretical, and 
the other dealing with the application of these principles, 
called practical. Both the theoretical and the practical 
aspects of the various subjects enter into all courses, 
though some, like mathematics, the sciences, and, in some 
cases, the languages, emphasize the theory or underlying 
principles. For example, mathematics, though taking 
many of its illustrations from practical life, is studied 
almost wholly for the principles involved; science also, 
while employing practical illustrations such as heat, light, 
and electricity, utilizes these illustrations not so much for 
their practical value as illustrative of scientific principles. 
Even language tends to emphasize structure and gram- 
mar. 

The practical courses, domestic science, domestic art, 
the fine arts, including music and literature, emphasize 
the acquisition of a technic and of material. For in- 
stance, domestic science treats of the effect of heat upon 
food, of food composition and nutritive values, but makes 

428 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 429 

its chief aim learning how to cook. Domestic art deals 
with the study of textiles and materials, yet skill in mak- 
ing garments and hats is its aim. The fine arts, while 
dealing with the principles of color and form, are mainly 
concerned in acquiring the technic for making beautiful 
objects. In literature the examples of lyric poetry and 
the drama are memorized, sometimes acted and sung. 
It will be seen in both theoretical and practical forms of 
work that the interest and aim are the mastery of the 
subject. 

Need for New Valuation of Studies. — On the contrary, 
the practical arts course described in this chapter em- 
phasizes neither the theoretical nor practical forms of 
work, but propounds a distinct new question for non- 
professional schools — What is this study worth ? How is 
it to be utilized in every-day life ? Thus, what was sec- 
ondary and incidental in the other courses is made funda- 
mental and central in this course. We are establishing 
a new valuation for the high school studies. Instead of 
the subject being central the pupils are made central. 
What is necessary in order that they may conduct their 
lives with the greatest efficiency and satisfaction is being 
considered. The individual's health, shelter and cloth- 
ing, social relations and conduct, and enjoyments become 
the focal points of the work. These divisions generally 
have both theoretical and practical courses underlying 
them, such as science courses, domestic science, domes- 
tic art, and fine arts courses, while two of them, social 
relations and enjoyment, closely as they are knit to con- 
duct, the three-fourths of life, have no systematic work 
upon which they can rest, though much is given, largely 
through the personality of teachers and the spirit of the 
school. 



430 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

By taking this work in connection with definite situa- 
tions in which the pupil finds himself, the complex theo- 
retical problems of ethics and psychology are avoided and 
at the same time methods of procedure and ideals of con- 
duct of the utmost practical value are suggested. 

A Course of Study. — Following is a description of such 
a course being given as an elective to senior high school 
girls, demanding two forty-minute periods per week in 
recitation throughout the year. Two points credit is 
given, the total credit required for the year being fifteen 
points. 

The subject is treated under five divisions: 

i. Economics of Clothing. 

2. Home Sanitation. 

3. House Furnishing. 

4. Social Relations and Conduct. 

5. Recreation and Enjoyment. 

Each division is conducted by one of the regular teach- 
ers of the staff, the first topic being treated by the teacher 
of domestic art, the second by the teacher of cookery, the 
third by the art instructor, the next by the preceptress, 
and the last by a supervisor. Special lecturers give their 
services for certain lessons, e. g., that on "Furniture," 
the one on "Pictures," the two on "Health; Its Social 
Significance," the talks on "Settlements and Social Ser- 
vice," and on "Customs and Courtesies of the Table." 
Throughout the course lecture slides are used, a model 
apartment in the school serves as a laboratory, and illus- 
trative visits are made frequently. A detailed descrip- 
tion follows: 

1. Economics of Clothing. — The general topic of the 
first twelve lessons is "How to Clothe Ourselves." 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 431 

Each girl is urged to have an allowance of her own that 
she may at once assume some responsibility in regard to 
spending money, and learn the self-control that comes 
from handling and accounting for a definite amount of 
money. A complete wardrobe is planned and the differ- 
ent articles of clothing proportioned. The cost of each 
and the time it might reasonably be expected to wear 
are considered. Allowances of different amounts are 
planned, varying from one hundred and fifty to eight 
hundred dollars. 

Working from this personal element, family budgets 
are next discussed. The work is considered from the stu- 
dent's station in the community, taking Mrs. Richard's 
" Cost of Living" as a basis, the allowance for the cloth- 
ing of the family is apportioned, the cost of men's and 
children's clothes being also studied. 

The study of textiles is taken up from the stand-point 
of the shopper only. Each girl writes for samples of 
different kinds of material. These are examined care- 
fully as to quality, width, and price per yard, then com- 
pared with standards of good quality, that all may be- 
come familiar with the appearance, the feeling, and the 
name of these materials. Simple physical tests are 
made for judging and distinguishing different kinds of 
materials. 

The responsibility of the shopper both in relation to 
the quality of goods offered on the market and also to 
the conditions under which they are produced is next 
discussed, and the class is taken on a shopping trip where 
their attention is called to simple good styles of clothing 
and materials. 

Notes are required throughout this series of lectures 
and a test is given at the end. 



432 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

2. Home Sanitation. — The second series of lessons is 
devoted to the topics of the new problem of the home 
in the city, apartments and flats, home sanitation and 
management, home nursing, and emergency work. 

The series opens with a discussion of how to select 
a home. The significance of constant moving which 
breaks up home associations is considered. Taking for 
granted that every normal family desires to own the home 
in which they live, emphasis is laid upon this permanent 
abiding place, though most of the considerations in its 
selection will apply equally well to the selection of a house 
for renting in either city or country. Attention is drawn 
to the location of the house with reference to water, 
drainage, and accessibility. 

Special attention is given to the structure of the cellar 
and its importance in governing the quality of air. Means 
for producing satisfactory ventilation, and the value of 
fresh air and cool temperature as seen in the effects of 
open-air schools and sanitariums are discussed. The 
planning and furnishing of the kitchen and pantry, with 
a comparison of various floor coverings and wall finishes, 
is considered. 

Next we turn to the economic problems which confront 
the house-keeper : the planning and keeping of the fam- 
ily budget, correctly proportioning her expenditures to a 
given income, banking, and the much-discussed servant 
problem, its causes and possible means of solution. 

The final lessons in this series of the course are devoted 
to what every one should know in home nursing and 
giving first aid to the injured. The topics selected are 
the furnishing of a sick-room; the making of a bed and 
care of patient in bed; the staunching of bleeding with 
practice in applying the simple and most used bandages; 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 433 

how to revive a person in case of fainting, drowning, 
or asphyxiation; treatment and care of cases of burns, 
poisoning, stings, bites, sprains, and fractures. 

Complete and carefully kept notes are required of the 
students throughout this series and practice work in 
first aid to the injured is demanded. 

3. House Furnishing. — The third section of the course 
aims to open the eyes of the students to the possibilities 
of good or bad taste in the home. 

Some of the students never having been in the art 
classes, "Line" and "Color" in their general aspects are 
treated first, in order that the meaning of terms used in 
the succeeding work may be known and appreciated. 

Recognizing color as the most potent factor for good 
or for ill, we first consider " Choosing a Color Scheme." 
This is followed by lessons on the treatment of the walls of 
the room, including wood-work, wall coverings, portieres, 
and curtains. Then follows "Floors and Floor Cover- 
ings." The fact that floors and walls should be con- 
sidered as backgrounds is especially emphasized, and 
ways to achieve this desirable end are shown. Then 
follows a lesson upon "Furniture: Its Proportions and 
Appropriate Ornamentation." Next comes "Pictures 
and Casts: Their Choice and Arrangement." The nega- 
tive side of the subject is shown in a lesson on "What 
to Avoid." The most common and flagrant lapses in 
good taste are discussed, the positive side being re- 
iterated by fine examples shown in contrast to objec- 
tionable ones. 

Practical problems in "Line" and "Color" are given. 
For example, early in the series the girls are asked to 
draw out the floor-plans of their own rooms, placing the 
doors and windows and the chief articles of furniture; 



434 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

then the side walls, showing the spacing and arrange- 
ment of furniture and pictures; also a description of the 
color scheme. The last problem asks for a description 
in words or by drawings, indicating what changes, if any, 
they would make in their rooms if free to do as they 
pleased. 

The entire series is fully illustrated by means of lan- 
tern slides, fabrics of many colors and textures, wall- 
papers, rugs, and whatever can be brought in to clarify 
the subject and make it an experience instead of mere 
word knowledge. To this end, notes are not taken in 
class — the desire being to leave the girls free to see, to 
feel, and to enjoy — but note-books are kept, and at the 
end of the subject they are asked to write a paper upon 
some one of the topics discussed, wherein they shall show 
their general intelligence and appreciation. 

4. Social Relations and Conduct. — The aim of the 
fourth division of the course, " Social Relations and Con- 
duct," is to discover how to increase the effectiveness 
and pleasure and reduce friction when individuals meet. 
These ends are sought by making the student more aware 
of herself as a social factor, showing the meaning of, 
and how to attain, the best personal appearance, health 
and manners, and how to exercise this personality in the 
home, the school, and society. 

Special lectures are given on health, the significance 
of manners, and social service. The lesson on " Courte- 
sies and Customs of the Table" is considered as a bit of 
laboratory work and conducted in a model dining-room, 
the different members of the class taking turns being 
hostess, guests, and waitresses, and putting into practice 
immediately the points of etiquette and graciousness 
emphasized. 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 435 

The other lessons of the series are carried on by means 
of special topics. For example, the five typical school 
parties are assigned, each one, to two students who are 
instructed to prepare and have written on the blackboard 
before the recitation, an outline of the committees and 
their duties necessary to run each party. The whole 
class is told to be ready to criticise, stress being laid 
upon the wisdom of suggesting something better in place 
of the part particularly criticised. In this manner are 
worked out skeleton plans for the giving of these various 
parties, plans which can be used in all future school 
parties. 

The series ends with special lectures on the oppor- 
tunities for social work open to high school seniors and 
graduates having leisure and the desire for regular social 
occupation. 

5. Recreation and Enjoyment. — The characteristic 
feature of the fifth and last division of the course is that 
it deals with those forms of conduct that rise out of the 
free and spontaneous desires of the students, rather than 
those that are conditioned by necessity for food, clothing, 
or social relations. What the pupil does in a leisure 
period expresses character in a way no other work can, 
for this reveals taste, desires, and ambitions free from 
the pressure of outside necessity. Because this work is 
spontaneous and self-expressive it is perhaps the most 
highly educative. The need for this work will be seen 
when we consider how few are born with that supreme 
talent or desire which forces the one who possesses it to 
become the artist or scientist. Many more acquire a 
taste through example or the exigencies of their environ- 
ment, but the large majority of people have no positive 
guidance as to what they would most enjoy doing. 



436 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Hence, for lack of the right stimulus, they go through life 
without discovering the activities that would have given 
them the greatest pleasure and profit. It is the aim of 
this part of the course 

i. To survey the chief forms of those self -activities that 
fill up the leisure of most people and 

2. To organize systematically our leisure time in order 
to get the highest enjoyment, as we do our business activi- 
ties in order to get good results. 

Under the first head "outdoor activities" are consid- 
ered, and the emphasis is laid upon the value of having 
a hobby, such as birds, flowers, stars, or interest in natural 
scenery, historic places, or in a knowledge of the game, 
as in sports. 

The second head is considered from two aspects, that 
of "the productive activities," the absorbing interest that 
comes from making beautiful and practical objects from 
wood, iron, clay, or by weaving or painting, giving a 
zest to what is done, rarely equalled by other activities 
and requiring skill, energy, and effort for their accom- 
plishment. On the other hand, much of our leisure is 
spent in activities that must be restful in character, hence 
another aspect deals with "appreciative activity"; how 
to get the most out of reading, poetry, or listening to 
music ; how to get the most out of the opera and theatre, 
to make museums and exhibits not mere pastimes, but 
genuinely stimulating. It is obvious that the subject- 
matter of such courses must be largely determined by 
the conditions under which the pupils live, city or coun- 
try, north or south. 

Following is a syllabus of the practical arts course 
offered in a city high school, the numbered topics for 
each lesson being given. 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 437 



PRACTICAL ARTS 

Syllabus of a Course for Senior High School Girls 
I. Economics of Clothing. 
II. Home Sanitation and Management. 

III. House Furnishing. 

IV. Social Relations and Conduct. 
V. Recreation and Enjoyment. 

Practical Arts 
Throughout the year, twice a week, sixty sessions 

I. Economics of Clothing: 

Aim. — To plan an allowance, to learn something about textile 
materials, and also how to shop to advantage. 

i. Planning a wardrobe. Different articles of clothing pro- 
portioned. 

2. Cost of different articles. 

3. Comparison between the cost of bought and home-made 

clothes. 

4. Comparison between allowances of $150 — 300 — 500. 

5. Proportioning the allowance for the clothing of the family. 

6. Planning the clothing for the family. 

7. Materials, kinds, cost, value. 

8. Cotton, linen. 

9. Wool, silk. 

10. Simple tests for judging materials. 

11. How to shop and where to shop. The moral responsibility 

of the consumer. 

12. How to make clothing last long and remain in good condi- 

tion. Some hints as to the relation of clothing to 
beauty and health. 

II. Home Sanitation and Management: 

General Aim. — To study the fundamental principles of home 
sanitation and management, and home care of sick and emergency 
work. 

1. Definition of a home: Owning one's own home; types of 
homes— city and suburban, the economic aspect of 



438 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

rent paying. The suburban home — study of the site. 
The facing of the house; drainage; elevation; setting 
out of trees; beautifying town houses and lots. 

2. The water supply: Sources of contamination; purifica- 

tion, nitration, boiling, distilling, apparatus on the 
market. 

3. House plans; construction of cellar. 

4. Air supply; heating and lighting. 

5. Disposal of waste: Household garbage; sewerage systems; 

care of plumbing. 

6. Marketing. 

7. Food sanitation; the milk problem; selection and care of 

milk. 

8. The cleaning of the house. 

9. Household accounts; division of income. Banking. 

10. Planning the work of the home; making the menus; the 

labor problem. 

11. Home nursing: Furnishing and care of sick-room; guard- 

ing against contagion; bed making; care of patient 
in bed. 

12. Care in cases of wounds and bleeding; bandaging; stings, 

burns, and poisoning. 

III. House Furnishing: 

Aim. — To study the principles underlying good taste and economy 
in household furnishings. 
1 and 2. Line. 

Study of the walls of a room with reference to spac- 
ing, proportion, beauty of line. 
Division of wall spaces. 
Placing of picture moulding, frieze, dado. 
Placing of furniture. 
Hanging of pictures. 
3 and 4. Color. 

Its properties, hue, value, intensity. 
Effect of one color upon another. 
Complimentary colors. 
How to subdue a color. 
Color vibration. 
Warm and cool colors. 



PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 439 

5. Choosing a Color Scheme. 

The application of 3 and 4 to the walls and furnishings 

of the home. 
Colors suitable to different rooms. 

6. Walls, portieres, curtains. 

Good and bad design in wall-papers or hangings, and 

in textiles. 
Wall finish suitable to hall, dining-room, living-room, 

bedroom, kitchen. 

7. Floors and floor coverings. 

Rugs vs. carpets. 

Color and design. 

Wearing qualities of the different kinds. 

Care of floors. 

8. Furniture. 

Construction. 
Proportions. 
Good lines. 
Appropriateness. 

9. Pictures, casts, and small ornaments. 

Choice of pictures. 
Framing a picture. 
Hanging a picture. 
Wise use of casts. 
Value of small ornaments. 

10. Accessories. 

Conveniences. 

Special arrangements for use or beauty. 

Clever contrivances. 

11. What to avoid. 

A chapter of "Don'ts" based upon observations 

made by teacher and students. 
Illustrations of good substitutes for these. 

12. Summing up. 

IV. Social Relations and Conduct: 

Aim. — To study how to increase the effectiveness and pleasure 
and reduce friction, when individuals meet. 
The Individual. — 1. Health: Care of the body, cleanliness, its 
social significance. 



440 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

2. Health: Effective exercise, diet, rest. 

3. Manners: The means of social expression. 
The Home. — 4. Courtesies and customs of the table. 

5. Celebrations and festivities. 

6. Intercourse with elders. 
The School. — 7. Christmas fair. 

Class party. 

Senior play. 

8. Basket-ball game. 

Swimming meet. 
Society: Opportunities in. — 9. Settlement work. 
10. Other social service. 

V. Recreation and Enjoyment: 

Aim. — To get the most out of our free time and the opportunities 
given, through widening, intensifying, and clarifying our tastes. 
Value of plan, versus drift, in our leisure time. 

Outdoor activities. — 1. Walks with special interests or hobbies, 
such as birds, flowers, stars, photography. 

2. Sports. 

3. Excursions. 

Productive activity. — 4. With tools, work in wood, iron, clay; 
printing, weaving. 

5. Painting, decorating. 

6. Playing and singing. 

Appreciative activity. — 7. Reading, poetry, fiction. 

8. Listening to music, home, concert. 

9. Opera. 

10. Theatre. 

11. Museums and exhibits. 

12. Summary of course. 

Formation of standards in living, doing, and feeling. 



CHAPTER XXV 
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 

Irving Elgar Miller, Ph.D. 
dean of professional work, state teachers* college, greeley, 

colorado 

Present-Day Interest in Psychology. — We live in an 
age of intense popular interest in psychology. There is 
a rapidly growing feeling that whether a man's chief pur- 
suit be practical, philosophical, or religious, he can under- 
stand it properly only if he pay deference to the teachings 
of psychology. In every walk in life from the most 
blatant charlatanry in medicine, religion, and advertising 
to the most profound and serious problems in therapeu- 
tics, theology, business methods, social welfare, criminol- 
ogy, and education, we are seeking to control practice by 
reference to the principles of psychology. At first but a 
single topic in the domain of philosophy, psychology has 
now become a central science. 

Relation of Psychology to Other Subjects. — In order 
that we may appreciate the value and significance of 
psychology in relation to the life and thought of the day 
it is worth while to work out more fully its central rela- 
tionships with other interests both theoretical and prac- 
tical. For a long time the students of epistemology and 
logic have found the analysis of the mental processes 
necessary to any rational solution of the problems of real- 
ity and truth. Writers on ethics have customarily incor- 

441 



442 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

porated into their works some account of the relations 
between impulse, feeling, and will; and they have found 
necessary considerable analysis of the basis, value, and 
efficiency of motives. With the advent of the genetic 
point of view, this analysis has broadened out to include 
not only considerations of child development, but also 
the racial or evolutionary element in the moral life. 
Students of education from the time of Pestalozzi, Her- 
bart, and Froebel to that of Colonel Parker and John 
Dewey have been continuously psychologizing the con- 
tent, method, and spirit of instruction, until now one 
cannot adequately prepare to teach without knowing 
something of analytic, physiological, functional, genetic, 
social, and clinical psychology. Sociology, history, and 
anthropology are no longer formulated in terms that 
ignore the large part played by the psychic factor. Even 
the typical blindness of justice, hitherto regarded as a 
specially sacred characteristic, is having to give way 
before the open eye of psychical insight into the nature of 
the criminal and the vital motive principles of reform. 
Criminal law and court procedure are both being grad- 
ually reconstructed in the light of psychological science 
to serve more adequately their true function within the 
social whole. The science of aesthetics is impossible, and 
not to be differentiated from a set of interesting specula- 
tions, except as it is based upon careful investigation and 
analysis of the psychological principles of beauty which 
underlie music, painting, poetry, and the other fine arts. 
Religion, the most intimate of our vital interests, is in our 
day yielding to psychological analysis and thus finding 
new methods of presentation better adapted to the whole 
nature of man and new bases of appeal to his conscience 
and his reason. In the science and the practice of medi- 



PSYCHOLOGY 443 

cine the psychic element is receiving wider recognition 
as an important factor both in the cure and the preven- 
tion of disease. The world of business, in attempting 
to make its activities more scientific in character, is 
looking not only to the sciences of economics and sociol- 
ogy for help, but also to the science of psychology. Con- 
sequently advertising and salesmanship are being re- 
duced to fine arts instead of being left for one to pick up 
by chance in the routine of business. Even the rascals 
in business and professional life are seeking to employ 
psychology for the better realization of their selfish ends 
through the perversion of the scientific knowledge of 
the laws of attention, persuasion, suggestion, hypnotism, 
etc. The natural sciences, which have so long prided 
themselves on being purely objective, are beginning to 
realize that they are in part psychologically determined. 
The facts, truths, and organizations of material which 
they embody are not mere correspondences with external 
reality, but represent selections of material and solutions 
of problems under the stress of motives of human inter- 
ests, human needs, and human values. 

In the past the most intimate connections of psychology 
have been with philosophy. Its independence from phi- 
losophy was not emphatically declared until 1879, when 
Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory. But, 
if we can judge by the organization of college and univer- 
sity faculties, the actual independence of psychology is 
a very recent realization. While taught in many cases by 
a specialist, psychology has customarily been classified 
as a subject in the department of philosophy. At the 
University of Chicago the department of psychology 
was not actually separated from that of philosophy until 
1904. This is typical of the situation in universities in 



444 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

general, though some may have effected the separation 
earlier and there are some in which the separation has 
not yet been effected. Doubtless for administrative 
reasons in some of the smaller universities and in many 
of the colleges psychology and philosophy have to be 
combined in one department. Even where this is the 
case psychology is becoming quite generally independent 
of philosophy and is more and more free to develop 
along its own lines. The influence of the physiological 
movement in psychology, of experimental method, and 
of the theory of evolution has finally transformed psy- 
chology from a philosophical discipline to one which is 
dominantly scientific. At the present time this scientific 
tendency in psychology and in its application to educa- 
tion expresses itself most markedly in the emphasis given 
to the biological and functional interpretation of conscious 
processes. 1 Psychology from this point of view, of course, 
has its philosophical implications, but it is not philosoph- 
ically determined. Its range and sweep are as broad as 
those of human interests and human activities. 

Early Recognition in Secondary Education. — When 
psychology was primarily of philosophic significance, 
either as representing a group of phenomena which de- 
manded interpretation at the hands of the philosopher or 
as furnishing a type of study that was felt to be a neces- 
sary propaedeutic of philosophy, it was quite natural to 

1 As evidence of this fact note the following list of recent works, all of 
which are dominated by this point of view: O'Shea, "Education as Ad- 
justment," 1903; Home, "Philosophy of Education," 1904; Angell, 
"Psychology," 1905; Judd, "Psychology," 1907; Miller, "Psychology 
of Thinking," 1909; Charters, "Methods of Teaching," 1909; McMurry, 
"How to Study," 1009; Ruediger, "Principles of Education," 1910; 
Dewey, "How We Think," 1910; Henderson, "Principles of Educa- 
tion," 1910, 



PSYCHOLOGY 445 

think of psychology as an integral part of the college 
course and not appropriate for the secondary school. 
Yet it is interesting to note in this connection that psy- 
chology did receive recognition in the academies and 
finishing schools of our earlier history. There is good 
reason to think that it was quite widely represented in the 
curriculum indirectly in the teaching of logic and moral 
philosophy. 1 While we cannot get adequate statistics on 
the subject, it is reasonably certain that psychology was 
not infrequently definitely recognized in the curriculum of 
secondary schools under the head of mental science or 
mental philosophy. The records of the Department of 
Education of the State of New York show that in the year 
1840 out of one hundred and forty-one academies in the 
State one hundred and four were teaching mental science. 
This is the largest proportion for any year between 1831 
and 1895. Most likely it was just those academies which 
regarded themselves as finishing schools or in those 
courses of study which were not designed to fit for college 
that psychology received most recognition. The acade- 
mies were "the people's colleges" of their day, and they 
tried to meet the fundamental needs of all the people. 
Religion, emphasizing the theological aspect strongly, 
was felt to be one of these fundamental needs. The 
teaching of the theological, or philosophical, aspect of 
religion made psychology necessary. Psychology in 
these institutions was then subordinate to philosophical 

1 On the curriculum of our early academies, see Brown, E. E., "The 
Making of Our Middle Schools." On pp. 237, 238, he exhibits the 
course of study of the Phillips Exeter Academy for the year 1808. In 
the English department are specified logic and moral and political 
philosophy. The curriculum of the first American High School, Bos- 
ton, 1821, shows also the requirement of logic in the second and third 
vears of a three-vear course. 



446 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

ends just as in the colleges. Yet it is significant that 
this type of institution incorporated psychology into its 
curriculum because it subserved the interests of the 
many who were not likely to go to college. With the 
decline of the academy and the rise of the high school as 
its modern equivalent, psychology quite generally lost its 
place in the curriculum. This may have been due to 
the fact that religious instruction has had little or no 
place in the public-school system. Not until psychol- 
ogy had developed along lines which connected with 
other interests in life could we expect it to come back into 
the curriculum of secondary education. With the growth 
of psychology in scientific character, particularly with 
its development of the genetic, racial, and social aspects 
of the subject, this new relationship to the common in- 
terests of life first appeared in the application of the prin- 
ciples of psychology to the science and art of teaching. 
There rapidly developed a strong faith, in some respects a 
blind and unreasoning faith, 1 in the efficacy of psychology 
to cure all the ills of school-room method and practice. 
Status of Psychology in the High Schools. — The strong 
movement in the direction of the application of psychol- 
ogy to education has not only given added emphasis to 
the teaching of the subject in colleges and universities, but 
has also brought it into the curriculum of the high school 
to some extent as the means of furnishing a minimum 
of professional training for rural-school teachers. Just 
how strong this comparatively new movement in the 
high school is could be ascertained only by a process of 

1 1 believe that psychology, while immensely important in its relation 
to education, has unduly occupied the focus of attention of educators to 
the unwise neglect, now in promise of remedy, of the contributions to be 
made by biology, sociology, ethics, and modern logic. 



PSYCHOLOGY 447 

investigation. This the author undertook with results 
which are described below. 

A questionnaire was sent out to the State superintend- 
ents of the various States and also to the high school in- 
spectors of the State universities. Replies were received 
from thirty-five States, the larger percentage of them 
coming from the offices of State superintendents. For 
purposes of interpretation of these replies the States were 
grouped under the following heads: The Middle West, 
the Eastern States, the Southern States, and the Far West 
(Rocky Mountain and Pacific States). In several States 
of the Middle West psychology seems to be strongly 
intrenched in the curriculum of the high school. A 
majority of the high schools of Ohio are reported as 
teaching psychology. In Kansas it is reported as being 
taught in one hundred and fifty-five high schools, and in 
Nebraska the estimate is vaguely set as from one-third 
to two-thirds of the high schools of the State which teach 
the subject. In Nebraska, however, the main emphasis 
is placed upon pedagogy. Iowa is reported as seeking 
legislation this year looking to the introduction of psy- 
chology into the high school curriculum as a professional 
subject in the preparation of rural-school teachers. In 
Michigan, and also in Wisconsin to a less degree, the 
county training school flourishes as an institution for the 
training of rural-school teachers. These schools receive 
students directly from the elementary school as well as 
from the high school. Psychology is, then, taught in 
them to a large class of pupils who are certainly not in 
advance either in training or in maturity of the senior 
class of the high school. In the rest of the Middle West 
psychology is not so prominent in the curriculum of 
secondary schools. In the Dakotas there is reported to 



448 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

be very little of it, in Indiana and Illinois there is practi- 
cally none, though there may be one or two exceptions, 
and in the other States of this group the subject appears 
to be practically a negligible element in the high school 
curriculum. In the Eastern States psychology in the 
high school is practically non-existent, except in Penn- 
sylvania where it is reported to be taught in about two 
per cent of the schools. Four out of eight of the Southern 
States reporting on this topic give psychology a place. 
In Kentucky the proportion of high schools offering 
psychology runs up to fifty per cent; in Oklahoma about 
thirty per cent; in Missouri from two-and-a-half to five 
per cent. Virginia reports psychology as taught in about 
twenty-five high schools. One State, namely Arkansas, 
is reported as seeking legislation this year which shall 
provide for the teaching of psychology in the high schools 
as a means to the better professional training of rural- 
school teachers. In the Far West there is practically 
no psychology taught in the high schools according to 
our reports, except in the State of Colorado, where the 
practice is quite general in the cities. The main purpose 
of psychology in the high schools of Colorado, however, 
does not seem to be the professional training of rural- 
school teachers; but the subject stands on its merits as 
one of value to all students, the professional aspect being 
incidental. If psychology has an abiding place in the 
curriculum of the high school, it is the conviction of the 
writer that it must be, as in Colorado, on account of its 
non-professional value rather than its professional value. 
When the universities and normal schools of the country 
wake up to a true conception of their function and re- 
sponsibility they are going to devise ways and means of 
meeting the needs of every class of teachers. Moreover, 



PSYCHOLOGY 440 

the time will soon come, it is to be hoped, when society 
will demand that the teachers of its country boys and 
girls shall be as fully equipped for their task as those 
who teach the youth of our cities. 

Value of Psychology in High Schools. — To get a 
glimpse of sentiment regarding the teaching of psychol- 
ogy in secondary schools as a non-professional subject, 
we must return to the results of our questionnaire from a 
different angle. In the replies from the Eastern States, 
three out of eight were favorable to the teaching of psy- 
chology as a general elective on a non-professional basis. 
From the Southern States the sentiment was almost 
unanimous against the teaching of psychology as a pro- 
fessional subject in the high school, yet out of eleven 
replies two were favorable to the teaching of the subject 
as a general elective and another was doubtful. From 
the Far West the sentiment, except in Colorado, seemed to 
be almost unanimous against the teaching of psychology 
in the high school either as a professional or as a non-pro- 
fessional subject. In Colorado, where it has been tried 
for a long time, the sentiment is strongly in favor not 
only of continuing the policy, but also of extending it. 
In the States of the Middle West, even in those in which 
psychology is taught with special reference to the train- 
ing of rural-school teachers, the sentiment in favor of 
psychology as a non-professional subject seems to be 
more clearly defined than it is for its being taught as a 
professional subject. It may be remarked at this point 
that the State University men who have expressed them- 
selves on the subject are, on the whole, more doubtful as 
to the value of psychology in the high school either as a 
non-professional or as a professional subject than are the 
State superintendents. 



450 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Whether psychology in the curriculum of the high 
school is growing in favor or not is, on the whole, a diffi- 
cult matter to determine on the basis of the reports re- 
ceived. There seem to be indications that the pendu- 
lum is swinging slightly in its favor, particularly as a 
non-professional subject for that class of students who 
do not expect to go to college. The question of the ad- 
visability of offering psychology as an elective in the cur- 
riculum of our secondary schools is one that must ulti- 
mately be answered in the light of its values for life. 
Consequently, we shall enter upon some discussion of 
these values. 

Culture Value of Psychology. — The interrelations of 
psychology with all classes of problems and activities of 
the modern world have already been pointed out. From 
this point of view there is certainly a very high cultural 
value to be assigned to the subject. It gives added in- 
sight into the human forces and factors that are shaping 
the tendencies of the age. It helps the individual to put 
himself into sympathetic relations with many phases of 
life which must otherwise remain merely curious and 
interesting objective phenomena. Why should the high 
school give a large place to the sciences which throw 
light upon the nature and function of the body and fail 
to complete the circle of knowledge of the self ? Man is 
not a physical organism merely, but a psycho-physical 
organism. To know the facts of the body without those 
of the mind is to give to them a distorted significance just 
as truly as is the case with mental phenomena studied 
without reference to the part which they play in the life 
and activities of the whole organism. Only the distor- 
tion is worse in the former case because that which is 
most characteristically human, that on which the superi- 



PSYCHOLOGY 451 

ority of man over the rest of the animal series depends, 
that which makes possible progress and civilization, has 
been omitted from consideration in the training of youth. 

Psychology has at least one very strong negative value 
which ought not to be ignored in our day. Among the 
uninitiated psychology is strangely confused with freak 
treatises on suggestion, hypnotism, clairvoyance, sub- 
conscious mind, telepathy, new thought, etc. The appe- 
tite which the popular mind has for this sort of stuff is 
simply appalling. The average person among the un- 
instructed cannot easily pick out the kernel of truth from 
the wagon-load of chaff that is confidently offered him by 
the charlatan as the latest and most authoritative deliver- 
ance of science. There is a real need that schools which 
reach a larger number of people than the colleges offer 
instruction in the great fundamentals of scientific psy- 
chology which would give some definite point of view 
for the evaluation of discussions in the marginal fields 
of the subject which, while exceedingly fascinating, are 
nevertheless too often wholly unscientific or at best only 
pseudo-scientific. Such instruction would save the warp- 
ing and distorting of many lives. 

Moral and Religious Value. — Psychology has a very 
positive moral and religious value. Its moral value 
comes in part through the revelation of the intimate in- 
terrelations of all parts of the self, especially the inter- 
play of physical and mental processes with those which 
are more commonly considered moral. An intelligent 
grasp of the part played by these physical and mental 
processes in the determination of moral conduct helps 
one to apply principles of control to the realization of 
moral aims. It is useful to know that when the isolated 
resolution not to yield to some specific type of temptation 



452 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

fails we may break down the force of persistent impulse 
by bringing to bear upon it a whole organized sys- 
tem of ideas with all the cumulative force of the impul- 
sive power of the separate elements which go to make up 
the complex. The importance of right habits both of 
body and of mind is more powerfully taught by James's 
chapter on "Habit" than by volumes of sermons from 
the pulpit. To know that the social and religious im- 
pulses are normal, and deeply fundamental, gives poise 
and balance at the time of storm and stress when the 
adolescent may be facing the necessity of reconstructing 
his social and religious conceptions. If he has a grasp 
of the fundamental elements of human nature he cannot 
tolerate any reconstruction of his life which narrows and 
restricts or which robs him of the full rights of his com- 
plete normal personality. Anchoring to the moorings of 
the race as revealed in the analysis of the complete self, 
tying down to the great fundamental values which the 
race has achieved in its struggle upward, is likely to 
prove the salvation of the individual. There is, of course, 
considerable doubt as to the advisability of teaching to 
adolescents those aspects of psychology which concern 
most intimately their own transition stage in life. The 
writer is personally inclined to the view that it ought to 
be done; but if it is to be done it ought to be by a per- 
son of maturity, judgment, and strong moral personality. 
For the adolescent to know some of the peculiar physical, 
mental, and emotional symptoms to which he is almost 
certain to be subject is to fortify him against tempta- 
tion, morbidness, and undue egotism. Knowledge of his 
own nature and the factors that are at work within his 
life gives sanity, poise, and self-control. Also, it gives 
him a rational basis for rejection of the subtle suggestions 



PSYCHOLOGY 453 

of quack physicians who make it their business to prey 
upon sensitive and innocent youth. 

Knowledge of Mental Processes Important. — It is im- 
portant for all people, and for the student in particular, 
to know something of the economy of mental procedure, 
to understand the physical conditions of mental work, 
and to be familiar with the fundamental laws of psychic 
hygiene, including fatigue, suggestion, and mental ther- 
apy. One ought to know the simple principles of diet, 
rest, exercise, sleep, recreation, and cheerfulness, in their 
relation to mental power and efficiency. 

To the student, psychology has a special value in 
bringing to clear consciousness the principles of observa- 
tion, memory, attention, association, and thinking, upon 
which he can build a rational and controlled method of 
study, instead of following a random and chance method. 
High school students themselves who have studied psy- 
chology have testified to this value of the subject and 
have said that they wished that they had studied it earlier. 
To learn the art of using the mind to best advantage is 
a life lesson that cannot be learned too soon. 

Text-Books and Other Aids to Study. — Improvement in 
text-books and in methods of teaching psychology have 
made it much more suitable for students of the high 
school. The older texts, dominated by philosophical and 
theological interests, were too analytic and abstract. The 
richer development of the subject within recent years 
and the working out of its applications to every phase 
of life makes it a study which satisfies a very wide range 
of adolescent needs. The introduction of the con- 
crete results of experimentation and the added em- 
phasis on the motor element have greatly enriched the 
content of psychology while at the same time making 



454 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

it more concrete and teachable. The greater concrete- 
ness of the subject and its greater relevancy to the ordi- 
nary needs of life have been accentuated by the tendency 
to eliminate from elementary texts, or else to minimize the 
treatment of, those topics which have chiefly a propae- 
deutic value for philosophy. In most of our books dia- 
grams and illustrations are used freely, particularly in 
the presentation of the essential facts of the nervous 
system. Photographic reproductions of certain aspects 
of nerve structure abound, and models and charts can 
be secured for the study of all of the grosser aspects of 
the nervous system. Slides can be secured for the micro- 
scopic study of minuter details or for projection upon the 
screen with the lantern. The nature and function of 
the normal human consciousness is constantly illumi- 
nated by reference to the results of the study of the ab- 
normal, the exceptional, the primitive, and the animal. 
The adoption of the evolutionary point of view, using 
as the central and fundamental principle that of adjust- 
ment, gives the story element necessary to sequence and 
unity of topics. From this point of view the parts of 
the subject are all presented not as mere descriptive and 
logical distinctions, but in dynamic, functional, and or- 
ganic relations to one another. With the growth of the 
subject of psychology in scientific character, concreteness 
of method, and richness of application to life, it is not sur- 
prising that there is taking place a gradual change in the 
conception of its educational value for the high school. 

Choosing Text-Books. — What has been said regarding 
improvement in text-books and in methods of instruction 
in general ought to be suggestive as to the right course of 
procedure upon the part of the high school teacher of the 
subject. But perhaps something ought to be said that 



PSYCHOLOGY 455 

deals more specifically with the problem of teaching psy- 
chology in the high school. With regard to text-books, 
choose them not with reference to duplication or equiva- 
lence of college courses in the subject. Consider first of 
all the needs of high school pupils and the adaptability 
of the text to the awakening in the pupil of a vital interest 
in psychology. Other things being equal, choose books 
of recent authorship; for they are more likely to con- 
tain the results of the most recent scholarship. This is 
very important because psychology is a rapidly develop- 
ing subject. Choose books, or a group of books, for 
class-room use which embody the enrichment in subject- 
matter and the improvement in methods which have 
been suggested in the preceding paragraph as character- 
istic of the past few years. 

Methods of Teaching. — Do not be afraid to vary the 
order of topics from that of the text-book used if in doing 
so you can find a more vital point of contact with the in- 
terest and experience of the class. Most books are de- 
termined by some logical principle of organization. The 
logical order, however, is not always identical with the 
pedagogical. The student is often thrust into the study 
of the nervous system the first week in the course, before 
he feels any need of a knowledge of physiological facts 
in the interpretation and explanation of mental phenom- 
ena. Too often this study of the nervous system is 
merely a chapter in physiology, without any selection and 
emphasis upon the facts which are of concern in the study 
of mind. It should be self-evident that the chapter on 
the nervous system and the special senses ought to be a 
chapter in psychology, not in physiology. This it can- 
not be if it is taken up too early. All aspects of the 
mind are so closely interrelated that I am inclined to 



456 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

think that theoretically it makes little difference with 
what topic the teacher starts the course. Problems will 
inevitably arise which lead out in all directions, and each 
discussion will clear up every other. Consequently, I 
should start in teaching high school pupils, or, for that 
matter, elementary students in normal school or college, 
with some topic which is central in mental experience 
and with which the pupil already has a great many points 
of contact and interest, in which there is, in other words, 
a great deal of latent material which does not have to 
be dug out of books, but rather out of the fulness of the 
pupil's own experience. Such topics are memory, asso- 
ciation, imagination, habit, methods of study, etc. While 
the same fundamental importance does not attach to 
such topics as dreams, illusions, hallucinations, sugges- 
tion, hypnotism, etc., the natural curiosity of most peo- 
ple in this class of subjects may serve as a source of vital 
interest and the arousal of problems which do lead into 
the heart of psychology. Most young people are very 
much interested in the learning processes and general 
intelligence of animals. The study of these I believe to 
be a very good introduction to the understanding of the 
learning processes of human beings and the most signifi- 
cant characteristics of human consciousness. In class- 
room discussions of relatively familiar topics without the 
use of a prescribed text-book, the way is prepared for the 
right use of the book as a means of enlarging and organiz- 
ing psychological experiences felt to be inadequate and 
unsatisfactory, instead of using it as a substitute for ex- 
perience. All the way through the subject, simple illus- 
trations requiring analysis of the psychical elements in- 
volved should be sought and used abundantly. I refer 
to such material as the following: learning to swim, to 



PSYCHOLOGY 457 

skate, to throw at a mark; the nature and function of 
the various mental activities involved in playing basket- 
ball, in boxing, foot-ball, etc.; the co-ordinations of sen- 
sory and motor processes involved in riding a bicycle and 
the process by which they are built up; the psychological 
basis of familiar proverbs and epigrams; what adver- 
tisements you remember and why; the psychology of the 
displays in show windows of the stores and of the head- 
lines and cartoons of newspapers; the explanation of the 
different mental attitudes involved in being well-dressed 
or meanly clad; the kinds and effects of imagery in 
such poems as Longfellow's "The Village Blacksmith" 
and Tennyson's "Blow, Bugle, Blow"; study of the 
differences in imagery in different classes of literature; 
differences in the memorizing of poetry and prose, with 
psychological explanation, etc., etc. The teaching of 
psychology in the high school may well be supplemented 
and vivified by the use of simple experiments. The 
teacher should choose kinds of experiments that can be 
performed with as little apparatus as possible. Many 
experiments can be performed without any special ap- 
paratus or with such as almost anybody can devise. 
Seashore's "Elementary Experiments in Psychology" 
and Witmer's "Analytic Psychology" in the hands of 
the teacher will furnish a reasonable number of such ex- 
periments from which to select, and the teacher once 
started on the right track can devise others equally as 
simple. Personally. I would give less attention in an ele- 
mentary course than the experimentalists of our colleges 
are inclined to do to the experiments in the field of sen- 
sation and more to those in the fields of memory, atten- 
tion, apperception, imagination, simple and fundamental 
cases of suggestion, the learning process (both motor and 



458 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

mental), and other aspects of the higher psychical proc- 
esses. In every phase of the subject of psychology, care 
should be taken to bring out the significance and func- 
tion of the various conscious processes in the life and 
activities of the individual and to show the intimate in- 
terrelations and interplay of these conscious processes 
with one another. 1 

The Future of the Subject. — Whether psychology will 
work its way into the curriculum of secondary schools as 
fully as is justified by its general value, is a question that 
will be determined by a variety of considerations. One 
of the most fundamental difficulties in the way is that of 
securing teachers who are sufficiently well trained in the 
content and who at the same time realize the essential need 
of adjusting the subject-matter and method to the inter- 
ests of life, particularly those of the average boy and girl 
of high school age. This difficulty will be in part over- 
come by the growing demand for teachers of both high 
academic preparation and special professional training 
for high school work. With the growth of the tendency 
in the special departments of the colleges and universi- 
ties to consider the psychological aspects of their work, 
there will also be a larger number of teachers trained in 
history, literature, and biology, who will be fairly well 
qualified to conduct a class in psychology in the smaller 
high schools which cannot employ a special teacher for 
the subject. Text-books especially adapted to the use 
of the high school are very difficult to find ; but with the 
growth of interest in the subject of psychology in the 
high school this difficulty is likely to be met soon. The 

1 For illustrations of this, see the principle applied in AngelPs "Psy- 
chology," Dewey's "How We Think," or Miller's "Psychology of Think- 
ing." 



PSYCHOLOGY 459 

pressure of vocational studies for admission to the high 
school curriculum is likely in many places to occupy the 
attention of school officials so fully as to exclude interest 
in the claims of psychology. With the growth of voca- 
tional work in the high school there will be created a 
situation, however, that will call more imperiously for 
the inclusion of psychology in the curriculum, first be- 
cause of its practical value in relation to the affairs of 
life which this very vocational demand creates, and sec- 
ond, because the high school will contain an even larger 
number of pupils proportionately who are not going to 
college, where this particular need would be satisfied. 

In conclusion, we may say that while this discussion 
appears to be a plea for the fuller introduction of psychol- 
ogy into the curriculum of the high school, the writer 
would not like to be construed as an advocate of its 
indiscriminate and wholesale introduction into the sec- 
ondary school curriculum. It better not be taught at all 
than to be conducted as a process of memorizing certain 
cut-and-dried principles and their applications to teach- 
ing, and this, possibly, from a text-book that is inaccurate 
and out of date. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 

Theodore W. Koch, A.M. 

HEAD LIBRARIAN, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

Importance of Problem. — " There is no problem relat- 
ing to the equipment of the high school which is more 
pressing than that of the library," said a recent editorial 
writer in the School Review. At the annual meeting of 
the New York State Library Association, in 1907, Dr. 
Downing, State Commissioner of Education, suggested 
that some special study be given to the question of high 
school libraries and a committee was later appointed to 
make an investigation of library conditions in high schools 
and report at the annual meeting in September, 1909. 
A questionnaire was sent to some eighty-three schools, 
but only a few of the replies contained more than the 
briefest answers. Twenty-five out of the fifty-two libra- 
ries heard from were in charge of librarians who had 
some library experience or training. Most of the libra- 
rians had been appointed to high school positions since 
1903. The first appointment of a high school librarian 
in New York City was in 1900. The investigation as a 
whole was unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the high schools 
reporting were not representative of conditions through- 
out the State, much less throughout the country gener- 
ally, and because the replies left much unsaid as to the 
actual use of and interest in these libraries. 

460 



THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 461 

In a discussion of "The difficulty of the high school 
library," ' Mr. Edwin White Gaillard, supervisor of work 
with schools, New York Public Library, claims that the 
problem is largely one of money and deprecates the du- 
plication of work already being done by the public 
library. This is no more of an argument against high 
school libraries than are similar objections against de- 
partmental libraries in a university. The high school 
library is for a special kind of work — work that can best 
be done in the school building, under the supervision and 
guidance of one familiar with the special needs of the 
student. Mr. Gaillard grants that much, of course, may 
be learned about libraries and library methods in the 
high school library, but claims that the library habit, the 
habit of going to the public library for all sorts of infor- 
mation, of little or of great interest, cannot be acquired 
from the high school library. This is a point which I can- 
not concede. University librarians are familiar with a 
similar argument against technical departmental libra- 
ries to the effect that they have a tendency to make the 
technical student feel that there is no need of his going 
to the University Library, that the departmental library 
answers all his needs. Experience, however, proves 
that to have these students use any library you must 
plant it right in their midst. So with the high school 
students: give them a good library in their own school 
building and then see that they use it properly, for this is 
a part of modern education. 

In these days when high schools are extending their 
work in so many directions and when books must be 
provided for supplementary work in English, in history, 
in the preparation of debates, and in other subjects, a 

1 School Review, April, 1907, vol. XV, pp. 245-250. 



462 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

well-equipped library is a necessity in the modern high 
school. A motley array of old text-books, out-of-date 
encyclopaedias and miscellaneous volumes from the attics 
of well-meaning friends of the institution will not make 
a good high school library. Upon how many school libra- 
ries in this country can former pupils look back as did 
Burne- Jones upon the little school library at Birming- 
ham, as "that blessed institution where we spent many 
blissful hours"? The failure of many school libraries 
is due to a lack of proper care and fostering attention 
after they have been established. The library is there 
out of deference to a growing public sentiment in favor 
of such an annex, but the library is too frequently left 
to run itself, or the responsibility for its care is given to 
some teacher already overburdened with class-room work. 
The responsibility ought never to be placed on the 
teachers, or at least not on one who is doing full work 
as a teacher. The average teacher, if given charge of a 
school library, will confine her efforts to seeing that the 
rules are obeyed, that books are brought in on time, and 
that silence and order are preserved. She will not have 
time or energy to devote to the building up of the library, 
to instruct the pupils in its use, to look after reference 
work with the students, nor to help the teachers in find- 
ing needed material. " Disabuse yourselves of the notion 
that it is teachers' work, and a way out of the difficulty will 
be found," says a recent writer in the Library Journal. 1 

The school library differs from the average public 
library in that it is usually a reference library first and a 
lending library only so far as the use of its books outside 
the building does not conflict with the usefulness of its 
service to the teachers and pupils in the school building. 
1 Vol. XXXIII, p. 136. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 463 

Duties of the Librarian. — The first duty of the librarian 
is to make the books, photographs, and other posses- 
sions of the library available by a simple and acceptable 
system of classification and cataloguing. After this has 
been accomplished it will be necessary to make these 
possessions known to the teachers and pupils. This can 
only be done by one who is familiar with the material 
and trained in its use. If the reference work is done by 
an untrained worker it is a case of the blind leading the 
blind. A teacher with no training in library methods 
will not go to another teacher, known to be similarly 
deficient, for information in regard to books, and the 
pupils will get comparatively little real library help from 
one who is primarily a class-room teacher, untrained to 
meet all classes of readers and answer a great variety 
of questions. 

The interested librarian will be on the lookout for any 
new books that may be of use to teachers and pupils; 
she will try to keep a balance in the matter of books for 
the various departments of study, to inform herself on 
current events and, in short, make herself as useful in 
all lines of high school work as is possible with the time 
and means at her disposal. 

Assistance for the Librarian. — As the work of the library 
grows it will be necessary for the librarian to have assist- 
ance of some kind. The arrangement for this will de- 
pend largely upon the circumstances in the given school. 
In many schools student assistants are employed. In 
some cases boys are hired at a small sum per hour to give 
their services as pages. In others good students are 
allowed to volunteer for library work, giving one hour a 
day to it. They enjoy the work and find their enlarged 
knowledge of the library very useful. In some schools 



464 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

the librarian is assisted by a member of the teaching 
staff, who thus becomes familiar with the library and 
acquires some knowledge of reference work and can 
assist the pupils in various ways. 

Purposes of a Library. — The purposes of a school 
library should be not only to provide laboratory material 
for the pupils' work in literature and history, to enable 
the teacher to instruct them in the use of books as sources 
of information, and to assist the teacher in other ways, 
but also to instil in the pupils an interest in books as 
books, to cultivate a taste for reading. Too many high 
school graduates have no conception of a book, other than 
fiction, as anything but a task or a text. 

The high school library should not try to compete with 
the public library if there is one in the same town. Lit- 
erature for recreation pure and simple is better supplied 
by the public library, where it is available for those who 
are both below and above the high school age. But, on 
the other hand, if there is nothing to interest the students 
by its innate appeal, if everything in the school library 
suggests lessons, many of the students will view it with 
suspicion, and avoid it, unless sent there by the teachers. 

Teaching the Use of the Library. — Most pupils when 
they enter the high school are ignorant of the use of the 
simplest and most common reference books. They do 
not know the difference between a table of contents and 
an index, and are so helpless in a library that their teachers 
hesitate to give them work outside their text-books. Even 
those who are best informed can be helped to the use of 
books which will be of the greatest assistance to them in 
the preparation of their daily lessons, essays, and debates. 

Early in the school year the librarian ought to meet 
the new students and explain to them in the reading- 



THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 465 

room the grouping of the books and the fundamental 
principles underlying the making of a dictionary card 
catalogue. The location of various classes of reference 
books should be pointed out, the differences between a 
dictionary and an encyclopaedia explained, and the vari- 
ous types of both commented upon. The pupils should 
be shown how to use "Poole's Index" and the "Reader's 
Guide to Periodical Literature" and have the helpfulness 
of these aids clearly brought home to them by concrete 
illustrations in connection with some practical theme work 
or preparation for a debate. If this initial visit to the 
library is made the subject of a required paper in the 
English course the benefits are doubled. The pupils can 
be assigned problems of various kinds involving the 
intelligent use of tables of contents and indexes, and 
familiarizing themselves with a variety of reference books. 1 
They can be asked to fill out a call slip from the reference 
in the card catalogue, take the volume to the delivery 
desk, have it charged out, return it, see it discharged 
and put back in its regular place on the shelves. 

Library Instruction. — The library instruction, in order 
to be of real benefit to the pupils, should be made a part 
of the school curriculum and be given credit the same 
as other work. In most schools where it is given it is 
counted as a part of the English work. In the high 
schools of Michigan the time given to the library work 
varies from one to three exercises for each of the grades. 
The instruction is given in the form of lectures or infor- 
mal talks, after which the pupils are required to work out 

1 For some problems of this sort, see "Modern American Library 
Economy," by John Cotton Dana, Part V, "The School Department, 
Section 2," "Course of Study for Normal School Pupils on the Use of a 
Library," by Marjory L Gilson. 



466 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

a set of problems on reference books. This work is done 
in the library under the supervision of the librarian. 
The completed exercises are in some schools handed in 
to the librarian and in others to the English teacher, 
but the credit is usually given the pupil by his English 
teacher. The talks are arranged to suit the work and 
needs of the different classes. Those for the ninth grade 
pupils ordinarily include instruction in the use of diction- 
aries, encyclopaedias and atlases, and the use of the table 
of contents and indexes in reference books. The instruc- 
tion for the tenth grade takes up the use of the card cata- 
logue, magazine indexes, year-books, and special indexes. 
The upper classes may be given practice work in compar- 
ing the value of different reference books, in learning to 
get references from various sources not on the reference 
shelves, and in the use of some of the government publi- 
cations. 

Library Courses. — One of the best library courses 
of this kind is that conducted by the librarian of the De- 
troit Central High School, where the work is graded to 
correspond with the regular grading of the English courses 
in that school. The librarian has a graded series of library 
questions which are among the best illustrations of this 
kind of work for high school courses available in print. 
We give specimens from the various series as follows: 

I. i. Consult the indexes of poems by Holmes, and give the 
pages on which you find the following: (a) Poem begin- 
ning, "Listen, young heroes! Your country is calling." 
(b) Poem entitled, "Dorothy Q." 
2. Between what streets in our city does 870 Lafayette Street 
come? 
II. 1. Look up the "Seven Wonders of the World" in two differ- 
ent books. Do not copy them. Name the books in 
which you found them. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 467 

2. In what work of literature does the "Old Man of the Sea" 
appear? In what reference book did you find it? 
III. i. Find the allusion to "Field of the Cloth of Gold" in two 
different books. In what books did you find it? 
2. Use the card catalogue and give a reference for the life of 
John Greenleaf Whittier. 
IV. i. (a) Who was governor of Iowa in 1906? (b) Where was he 
born? 
2. (a) Name two good recent encyclopaedias, (b) Name two 
good older encyclopaedias. 
V. 1. (a) What is the general index to Government publications? 

(b) How often is it published? 

2. (a) What is the Congressional directory? (6) Examine it 
and name any one reference point which interested you. 

(c) What is the Congressional Record? 

VI. Name good reference books under the following heads: (a) 
Classical dictionary, (b) Gazetteer of the world, (c) 
Atlas of the world, (d) Year-book for current history. 

There is an almost endless variety of questions which 
can be put to the students to bring out points in con- 
nection with reference books. They can be asked to 
name the various kinds of dictionaries in the library, to 
tell which is the latest issue, to look up the same word in 
each, and tell the differences noted in the treatment of 
the word in question. See whether they can define a gaz- 
etteer, a glossary, and a concordance. Ask them where 
they would go to find a picture of the human skeleton, 
or colored plates of coats of arms and flags of various 
nations. See whether the word copyright means any- 
thing to them. 

"The position of a modern librarian in a high school," 
says Principal McAndrew, 1 of the Washington Irving 
High School, New York, "seems to me like that of a 

1 In an address before the library section of the National Education 
Association, Boston, July 5, 1910. 



468 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

missionary in a heathen country. No one but a librarian 
can realize what an astounding amount of ignorance we 
high school teachers exhibit regarding the purpose and 
operation of a library. Time and again in my library 
experience I have observed teachers searching through 
reference books who were too poorly trained to look in 
the table of contents and too proud to ask for help." A 
frank confession from the teacher is good for the soul of 
both the teacher and the librarian. Certainly the class- 
room teacher must inform herself more thoroughly on 
the rudiments of library methods if she is to work in suc- 
cessful co-operation with the school librarian. Normal 
schools are now giving instruction in library economy. 
The Oregon Library Commission has published a broad- 
side listing under forty-three heads, "Some things a 
teacher should know about books and libraries." The 
list has been reprinted by the Michigan State Library 
Commission with slight revision. As specimens the fol- 
lowing may be cited: 

i. What are the best cyclopedias? 

2. What dictionaries are best for school use and how do they 

differ? 

3. What books can you consult to find out whether certain sub- 

scription sets urged upon the district by agents have any 
value? 

4. What is the best printed aid to the formation of a teacher's pro- 

fessional library? 

5. Where will you find annual summaries of the books on education, 

with notes as to their value? 

6. What U. S. public documents would be of value to you in your 

school work and how may they be obtained? 

7. What are the best printed lists of books for children and how 

much will they cost? 

8. What are the best graded lists of children's books? 



THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 469 

g. Where can you get notes about children's books that will be 
of service in guiding the reading of the children in your grade ? 
10. What are the best books for reading aloud in your grade ? 
ii. What are the best collections of poetry for children? 

12. What books may be the best stepping-stones for the boy who is 

a slave to the "nickel library" habit? 

13. What simple, accurate, scientific books will you give to the boys 

who are, or may become, interested in natural science; and 
what will you choose for those who wish to identify specimens 
of insects, of minerals and rocks, of birds, and of flowers? 

14. If you do not know about these books how will you inform your- 

self? 

15. What are some of the best biographies for children? 

16. What are some of the good books of travel for use in geography 

work? 

17. How can you find what magazine articles have been written 

about any subject, and how can you get these articles for the 
use of the debating society? 

18. What are the best books for the debating society? 

19. What are the best periodicals for children ? 

20. What are the provisions of the school library law in regard to 

district-school libraries? 

Value of Library Instruction. — Such library instruc- 
tion as has been described is of great help to teachers 
assigning work to pupils and of the greatest benefit to 
the pupils themselves. Without it, the librarian, teach- 
ers, and pupils are handicapped in their work and the 
library fails of its full usefulness. A knowledge of how 
to use a library will be of the greatest value to the student 
not only through his high school course, but even more 
so in college, if he goes that far, or in continuing his 
reading and self-culture through the means of the public 
library when he discontinues his academic career. To 
be able to use books effectively, to know where to find 
exact information when wanted, is a kind of knowledge 



470 HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

that comes from familiarity with reference books and 
the use of books as sources. Such an acquaintance with 
books is of infinitely more value in later life than know- 
ing a few text-books from cover to cover. The place in 
which to lay the foundation for this proper and intimate 
acquaintance with books as tools is in the school library 
and the period is that of the high school age. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

CHAPTER II 

THE DISCIPLINARY BASIS OF COURSES OF STUDY 

By reading the references below one may follow critically subse- 
quent experimental investigations which will deal with the question 
from the school's point of view and in a school environment. 

Angell, J. R. — "Doctrine of Formal Discipline in the Light of 
the Principles of General Psychology." Educational Review, 
June, 1908. 

Bagley, W. C— "Educative Process," chap. XIII. $1.25, Mac- 
millan. 

Bair, J. H. — "The Practice Curve." Columbia University Contri- 
butions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education, vol. IX. 

Colvin, S. S. — "Some Facts in Partial Justification of the So-called 
Dogma of Formal Discipline." Bulletin of University of 
Illinois, vol. VII, no. XXVI. 

Colvin, S. S. — "The Learning Process." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Delabarre and Henderson. — Articles in Education, May, 1909. 

Ebert and Neumann. — " Ueber einige Grundfragen der Psychologie 
der Ubungsphanomene im Bereiche des Gedachtnisses." 
Arch. }. d. gesamle Psychol., vol. IV. 

Fracker, G. C. — "The Transfer of Training in Memory." Psycho- 
logical Review, Mon. Supplements, vol. IX, no. II. 

Heck, W. H. — "Mental Discipline and Educational Values." Sec- 
ond edition, revised, 1911. $1.00, Lane. 

Henderson, E. N. — "Principles of Education." $1.75, Macmillan. 

James, William. — "Principles of Psychology," vol. I, p. 667. 
2 vols., $4.80, Holt. 

Judd, C. H., and Pillsbury, W. B. — Articles in Educational Review, 
June, 1908. 

*The authors have independently adopted systems of references to 
periodicals, some preferring to emphasize date of publication, others, 
number of pages, etc. 

471 



472 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

O'Shea, M. V. — "Education as Adjustment," chaps. XIII and XIV. 
$1.50, Longmans. 

Rietz and Shade. — "Correlation of Efficiency in Mathematics and 
Efficiency in Other Subjects." Bulletin of University of 
Illinois. Vol. VI, no. X. 

Ruediger, W. C. — "Principles of Education," chap. VI. $1.25, 
Houghton. 

Scripture, E. W. — "The Education of Muscular Control and 
Power," "Studies Yale Psychological Laboratory," vol. II, 
pp. 105-144. 

Seashore and Jenner. — "Training the Voice by Aid of the Eye in 
Singing." Journal 0} Educational Psychology, June, 1910. 

Shorey, P. — "A Symposium on the Value of Humanistic, Particularly 
Classical Studies; the Classics and the New Education." 
School Review, Nov., 1910. 

Swift, E. J.— "Mind in the Making." $1.50, Scribner. 

Thorndike, E. L.—" Principles of Teaching," chap. XV. $1.25, 
Seiler. 

Thorndike and Woodward. — "Influence of Improvement in One 
Mental Function Upon the Efficiency of Other Mental Func- 
tions." Psychological Review, vol. VIII, pp. 247, 348, 553. 

Whipple, G. M. — "Effect of Practice upon the Range of Visual 
Attention and of Visual Apprehension." Journal 0} Educa- 
tional Psychology, May, 19 10. 

Winch, W. H. — "Accuracy in School Children. Does Improve- 
ment in Numerical Accuracy Transfer?" Journal of Educa- 
tional Psychology, Dec, 19 10. 

Winch, W. H. — "The Transfer of Improvement in Memory in School 
Children." British Journal 0} Psychology, vol. II, p. 284. 



CHAPTER III 

HISTORY OF SECONDARY CURRICULUMS SINCE THE RENAISSANCE 

Adams, G. B. — "Civilization During the Middle Ages." $2.50, 

Scribner. 
Brown, E. E.— "The Making of Our Middle Schools." $2.50, 

Longmans. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 473 

Clarke, G. — "Education of Children at Rome." Macmillan. 
Cubberley, E. — "Changing Conceptions of Education." $.35, 

Houghton. 
Davidson, Thomas. — "Education of the Greek People." $1.50, 

Appleton. 
Davidson, Thomas. — "A History of Education." $1.00, Scribner. 
Davidson, Thomas. — "Rousseau and Education According to Nat- 
ure." $1.00, Scribner. 
Farrar, F. W. — "Essays on a Liberal Education." Macmillan. 
Farrington, F. E. — "Secondary Education in France." $2.50, 

Longmans. 
Klemm and Hughes. — "Progress of Education in the Nineteenth 

Century." $2.25, Bradley-Garretson Co. 
Laurie, S. S. — "History of Educational Opinion from the Renais- 
sance." $1.50, Cambridge University Press. 
Laurie, S. S. — "Rise and Constitution of the Early Universities." 

$1.50, Appleton. 
Monroe, Paul. — "Text-Book in the History of Education." $1.90, 

Macmillan. 
Paulsen, F. — "German Education Past and Present." $1.25, 

Scribner. 
Russell, J. E. — "German Higher Schools." $2.50, Longmans. 
Walden, J. W. H— "The Universities of Ancient Greece." $1.50, 

Scribner. 
Watson, Foster. — "The English Grammar School to 1660." $2.00, 

Cambridge University Press. 
West, A. F. — "Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools." $1.00, 

Scribner. 
Woodward, W. H. — "Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanistic 

Educators." $1.60, Cambridge University Press. 
Youmans, E. L. — "Culture Demanded by Modern Life." $2.00, 

Appleton. 



474 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER IV 

PRINCIPLES AND PLANS FOR REORGANIZING SECONDARY EDUCATION 

Boynton, F. D. — "A Six- Year High School Course." Educational 

Review, 20 : 515-19, Dec, 1900. 
Brown, J. Stanley. — "Development of Secondary Schools According 

to the Proposed Plan." School Review, 13 : 15-18, Jan., 

1905. 
Brown, J. Stanley. — "Joliet Township High School." School Re- 
view, 9 : 417-32, Sept., 1901. 
Brubacher, A. R. — "Some Readjustments in Secondary Education." 

Education, 24 : 613-20, June, 1904. 
Bunker, Frank F. — "The Reorganization of the Schools of Berkeley 

— A Plan." Pamphlet No. 2, Board of Education, Berkeley, 

Cal. 
City Club of New York. — "A Suggested Readjustment of the Years 

of the Public School." Jacob W. Mack, Chairman, Commit- 
tee on Schools. 
Commercial Club of Minneapolis. — "A Plan for the Rearrangement 

of the Public School System." Proposed by the Educational 

Committee. 
DeGarmo, Charles. — "Principles of Secondary Education." p. 20. 

$3.00, Macmillan. 
Dewey, John. — "The High School of the Future." School Review, 

1903, p. 1. Discussion, pp. 17-22. 
Draper, A. S. — "Annual Report of Commissioner of Education of 

State of New York, 1908 and 1909." 
Hall, G. Stanley. — "Adolescence." $7.50, Appleton. 
Han us, P. H. — "Six -Year High School Program." Educational 

Review, 25 : 455-63, May, 1903. Also in "Modern School," 

pp. 99 ff. 
Harper, W. R.— "The High School of the Future." School Review, 

n : i-3> J an -> IQ °3- 

Hedgepeth, V. W. B. — "Six-Year High School Plan at Goshen, 
Indiana." School Review, 13 : 19-23, Jan., 1905. 

Liddeke, F. — "Extension of the High School Course." School Re- 
view, 12 : 635-47, Oct., 1904. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 475 

Lyttle, E. W. — "Should the Twelve- Year Course of Study be equally 
divided between the Elementary School and the Secondary 
School?" Proc. N. E. A., 1904, p. 428. Discussion, p. 436. 

Lyttle, E. W., et al. — "Report of the Committee on Six- Year Course 
of Study." Proc. N. E. A., 1908, p. 625. 

Morrison, G. B. — "Report of Committee on Equal Division of 
Twelve Years in Public Schools between the District and the 
High School." Proc. N. E. A., 1907, p. 705. See also Re- 
ports in Proc. N. E. A. since 1907. 

Snedden, D. S. — "Six-Year High School Course." Educational 
Review, pp. 525-29, Dec, 1903. 

Whitney, F. P. — "Differentiation of Courses in the Seventh and 
Eighth Grades." Educational Review, pp. 127-34, Feb., 191 1. 

CHAPTER V 

instruction: its organization and control 

Note. — The material bearing on the general subject-matter of 
this chapter, to be found in the recent literature of secondary edu- 
cation, is very extensive. The following brief bibliography is merely 
intended to indicate the types of discussion. For detailed study, 
the student should consult the files of the School Review, and the 
Proceedings of the National Education Association (Department of 
Secondary Education), especially the fiftieth anniversary volume 
(1906). A considerable portion of the literature of vocational edu- 
cation relates to the reorganization of secondary instruction. Con- 
sult also the several bibliographies of education prepared by the 
United States Bureau of Education. 

Armstrong, J. E. — "The Advantages of Limited Sex Segregation in 
the High School." School Review, 18 : 339-50. 

Bolton, F. E — "The Preparation of High School Teachers: What 
They Receive and What They Should Receive." School Re- 
view, 15 : 97-122. 

Book, W. F— "The High School Teacher from the Pupil's Point of 
View." Pedagogical Seminar, 12 : 239. 

Brooks, S. D— "The Extension of High School Influence." Edu- 
cational Review, 29 : 433. 



476 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brown, E. E— "The Making of Our Middle Schools." $3.00, 
Longmans. 

Chancellor, W. E. — "A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in 
Education." $1.75, Houghton. 

Chancellor, W. E. — "Our Schools: Their Administration and Su- 
pervision," chaps. IV, V, VI, VII, XI, XIV. $1.50, Heath. 

DeGarmo, Charles. — "Principles of Secondary Education," 3 vols. 
$3.00, Macmillan. 

Dewey, J. — "Ethical Principles Underlying Education." $.25, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press. 

Dutton and Snedden. — "Administration of Public Education in the 
United States," chaps. XI, XII, XIII, XX. 

Elliott, E. C, and others — "The Education and Training of Second- 
ary School Teachers." Fourth Year Book, Nat. Soc. for 
Sci. Study of Ed., Chicago, 1905. 

Gunnison, W. B. — "Should the Entire Time of the High School 
Principal Be Given to Administration?" Proc. N. E. A., 
1905 : 452. 

Hall, G. S.— "The High School as the People's College." Peda- 
gogical Seminar, 9 : 63. 

Hanus, P. H.— "A Modern School." $1.25, Macmillan. 

Hollister, H. A.— "High School Administration." $1.50, Heath. 

Jardon, D. S. — "The High School Course. Educational Review, 
36 : 372-76. 

Luckey, G. W. A. — "Professional Training of Secondary School 
Teachers in the United States." N. Y. Teachers College, 
Columbia University Press, 1903. 

National Education Association. — "Report of the Committee of 
Seventeen on the Professional Preparation of High School 
Teachers." Proc. N. E. A., 1907 : 523-668. 

Nightingale, A. F. — "Rigid vs. Elastic Courses." School Review, 
6 : 301. 

O'Shea, M. V. — "Dynamic Factors in Education," chaps. XIV, XV. 
$1.25, Macmillan. 

Palmer, G. H.— "The Ideal Teacher." $.35, Houghton. 

Richardson, M. W. — "Making a High School Programme." School 
Review, 17 : 449-66. 

Ruediger, W. M. — "Principles of Education," chaps. Ill and IV. 
$1.25, Houghton. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 477 

Sachs, J. — "The Departmental Organization of Secondary Schools." 

Education, 27 : 484-96. 
Shorey, P. — "Discipline vs. Dissipation in Secondary Education." 

School Review, 5 : 217. 
Tetlow, J. — "The High School Principal, His Rights, Duties, and 

Opportunities." Educational Review, 17 : 227. 
Thorndike, E. L. — "A Neglected Aspect of the American High 

School." Educational Review, 33 : 245-55. 
Vest, E. J. — "Text-Books and Public Schools." Education, 21 : 27. 
Vincent, G. E. — "Social Mind and Education," pp. 91-113. $1.25, 

Macmillan. 
Young, E. F. — "The Public High School." School Review, 18 : 73- 

S3- 

CHAPTER VI 

MATHEMATICS 

For high school libraries: 

Ball, W. W. R— "Mathematical Recreations and Problems." $2.25, 
Macmillan. 

Ball, W. W. R— "Short Account of the History of Mathematics." 
$3.25, Macmillan. 

Cajori, F— "History of Elementary Mathematics." $1.50, Mac- 
millan. 

Chrystal, G.—" Algebra," vols. I and II. A. and C. Black, London. 

Smith, D. E. — "Teaching of Elementary Geometry." Ginn. 

Smith, D. E— "The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics." $1.00, 
Macmillan. 

Stamper, A. V. W.— "A History of the Teaching of Elementary 
Geometry." Teachers College. 

Tannery. — "Notions de Mathematique." Paris. 

Tropfke. — "Geschichte der Elementar Mathematik." Veit Co., 
Leipzig. 

Weber and Wellstein— "Encyklopadie der Elementar-Mathematik," 
3 vols. Teubner. 

Young, J. W. A.— "The Teaching of Mathematics." $1.50, Long- 
mans. 

Young, J. W. A.—" Mathematical Monographs." Longmans. 



478 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Young, J. W. — "Fundamental Concepts of Algebra and Geometry." 

German, French, and English Elementary Text-Books, including 

those by Emile Borel. 
School Science and Mathematics. $2.00 per year, Chicago, 111. 

Additional references: 
Dintzl, E. — "Der mathematischen Unterricht an den Gymnasien." 

Austria. 
Gutzmer. — "Die Tatigkeit der Unterrichtskommission." Teubner. 
Hofler, Alois. — "Didaktik des mathematischen Unterrichts." 

Teubner. 
Klein. — "Elementarmathematik vom hoheren Standpunkte aus," 2 

vols., Teubner; and numerous works on the teaching of 

mathematics (German). 
Simon, Max. — "Didaktik und Methodik des Rechnens und der 

Mathematik." 
Tannery, Painleve, Picard, et al. — "De la Methode dans les 

Sciences." Felix Alcan, Paris, 1909. 

Lists of real problems in School Science and Mathematics. 

Numerous articles in School Science and Mathematics, in the Zeit- 
schrijt, jilr mathematischen und naturwissenschajtlichen Unter- 
richt and in V Enseignement Mathemalique. 

Series published by Teubner under general title, "Abhandlungen 
uber den mathematischen Unterricht in Deutschland." 

"Mathematics in the Elementary Schools of the United States," 
Bulletin No. 13, 191 1, United States Bureau of Education. 

"Mathematics in the Public and Private Schools of the United 
States," Bulletin No. 16, 191 1, United States Bureau of 
Education. 

CHAPTER VII 

PHYSICS 

Articles on the teaching of physics in high schools: 
Birdseye, C. F. — "The Work of the Higher Education Association." 

Science, 31, 721, 1910. 
Ferry, F. C. (as Secretary-Treasurer of the Committee). — "The 

National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 479 

and Secondary Schools." Science, 30, 590, 1909. An ac- 
count of the fourth annual meeting of the committee in 1909, 
at Cambridge, Mass., contains the committee's definition of 
the secondary school unit. Contains also the names of the 
committee members as delegates from various educational 
associations. 

Guthe, K. E. — "Some Reforms Needed in the Teaching of Physics." 
Science, 31, 1, 19 10. A discussion of the problems to be 
solved in the training of teachers in colleges and univer- 
sities. 

Hall, E. H. — "The Teaching of Physics in the Secondary School." 
Part of the volume by A. Smith and E. H. Hall on "The 
Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary School." 
$1.50, Longmans. 

Hall, E. H. — "Relations of Colleges and Secondary Schools in Re- 
spect to Physics." Science, 30, 578, 1909. Gives an account 
of the development of the present definitions of the physics 
unit for the high school. 

Hall, E. H. — "The Teaching of Elementary Physics." Science, 32, 
129, 1910. A statistical study of ideas and usages of many 
teachers (geographically well distributed) as to the teaching 
of physics in high schools. 

Mann, C. R. — "The Physics Teacher's Problem." Science, 29, 
951, 1909. 

Mann, C. R. — "Physics Teaching in the Secondary Schools of 
America." Science, 30, 789, 1909. 

Mann, C. R. — "The Interpretation of the College Entrance Board's 
New Definition of the Requirement in Physics." Educa- 
tional Review, 31, 1909. 

Mann, C. R. — "Physics and Education." Science, 32, 1, 1910. 

Millikan, R. A. — "Relation of High School and College Physics." 
Separate: Address Before the Eastern Association of Phys- 
ics Teachers, Boston, Mass., 1908. 

Packard, J. C. — "High School Physics." Education, 30, 512, 1910. 

Shedd, J. C. — "The Teaching of Elementary Physics." Science, 32, 
376, 1 9 10. A discussion of Hall's paper in Science, 32, 129, 
1910. 

Spencer, Herbert. — "Educational, Intellectual, Moral, and Physi- 
cal," 1860-1. What knowledge is of most worth? 



480 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Terry, H. L. — "Four Instruments of Confusion in Teaching Phys- 
ics." Science, 31, 731, 1910. 

Woodhull, J. F. — "What Specialization has Done for Physics Teach- 
ing." Science, 31, 729, 19 10. 

High School Teachers' Association, New York City. — "Articulation 
of High School and College." Pamphlet, Nov., 1910. 

"The New Movement among Physics Teachers." School Science 
and Mathematics, 8, 1908. Contains the North Central As- 
sociation's definition of the unit in physics. 

"Definition of Requirements in Elementary Physics." A statement 
concerning the appointment, by the College Entrance Exam- 
ination Board, of a committee of six secondary school teachers 
of physics; the definition and syllabus of the course as 
drawn up by this committee and adopted by the board. 
School Science and Mathematics, 9, 572, 1909. 

Books for reference: 

Cajori, F— "A History of Physics." $1.60, Macmillan. 

Cox, J. — "Mechanics." The University Press, Cambridge, Eng. 

Edser, E. — "Heat for Advanced Students." $1.00, Macmillan. 

Edser, E— "Light for Students." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Hastings, Charles. — "Light." $2.00, Scribner. 

Kaye and Laby. — "Physical and Chemical Constants." $1.50, 
Longmans. 

Mach, E. — "Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung historisch-kritisch 
dargestellt." Brockhaus, Leipzig. Translated (The Science 
of Mechanics) by T. J. McCormack, Open Court Publishing 
Company. 

Mach, E. — "Die Principien der Warmelehre." Barth, Leipzig. 

The science of Physics needs badly a series of works which shall do 
for its other subdivisions what these two books, last named, 
have done for their respective fields. The high school student 
should be encouraged especially to read those parts of Mach's 
"Mechanics" which deal with the achievements of Galileo 
and of Newton. I have already referred to the desirability of 
the teacher's reading the section on the economy of science. 

Poincare* and Vreeland. — "Maxwell's Theory and Wireless Teleg- 
raphy." $2.00, McGraw Publishing Co. 

Smithsonian Physical Tables. — The Smithsonian Institution. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 481 

Thompson, S. P. — "Light Visible and Invisible." $1.50, Mac- 
millan. 

Thompson, S. P. — "Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Mag- 
netism." $1.40, Macmillan. 

Thomson, J. J. — "Electricity and Matter." $1.25, Scribner. 

Thomson, J. J. — "The Corpuscular Theory of Matter." $2.00, 
Scribner. 

Thomson, J. J. — "The Discharge of Electricity through Gases." 
$1.00, Scribner. 

Watson, W.— "A Text-Book of Physics." $3.50, Longmans. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CHEMISTRY 

Articles on chemistry in high schools: 
Allen, Charles R. — "Conditions and Equipment in Secondary 

Schools." School Science and Mathematics, 599-604, Sept., 

1910. 
Allen, J. H. — "The Value of Chemistry as a High School Subject." 

School Science and Mathematics, 721-31, 788-800, Nov., 

Dec, 1910. 
Baker, M. S.— "How Much Chemical Theory Shall be Taught in 

the High School and How Shall It be Presented?" School 

Science and Mathematics, 273-83, April, 1906. 
Blanchard, Arthur A. — "Elementary Chemistry Teaching as a 

Means of Developing the Power of Independent Scientific 

Reasoning." School Science and Mathematics, 382-87, May, 

1910. 
Bush, George C. — "The Value and Limitations of Quantitative 

Work in Physics and Chemistry." In National Education 

Association. Journal of Proceedings and Addresses, 1907, 

pp. 684-86. 
Clarke, Frank W. — "A Report on the Teaching of Chemistry and 

Physics in the United States." Washington, Government 

Printing Office, 1881. United States Bureau of Education. 

Circular of Information, 1880, No. 6. The above contains a 

list of text-books relating to chemistry and physics, pp. 157-66. 






482 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Curtman, Louis J. — "A System for the Preparation of Qualitative 
Unknowns." School Science and Mathematics, 513-17, June, 
1910. 

Dennis, L. M., and others. — "What of Chemistry Shall Be Taught 
in the High School and How Shall It Be most Effectively 
Taught?" In New York (State) Associated Academic Prin- 
cipals, Proceedings, 1902, pp. 439-54. 

Dubois, N. A. — "Practical Technical Chemistry in Our Schools." 
School Science and Mathematics, 294-99, April, 1910. Read 
before the Chemical Section of the Central Association of 
Science and Mathematics Teachers in Chicago, Nov. 26, 1909. 

Geer, William C. — "The Teaching of Chemistry in the Secondary 
Schools: A Study of Recent Practice and Results." In New 
York State Science Teachers' Association, Proceedings, 1905, 
pp. 45-59. New York State Education Department. Sec- 
ondary education. Bulletin No. 81. School Review, 275, 
April, 1906. 

Hutchins, E. B. — "How May Instruction in Elementary Chemistry 
Be Made More Efficient ? " In Central Association of Science 
and Mathematics Teachers, Proceedings, 1908, pp. 56-64. 
Also in School Science and Mathematics, 252-60, Mar., 1909. 

James, Gwendoline. — "The Teaching of Physics and Chemistry in 
American Secondary Schools" (Northeastern Division of the 
United States). Oswestry, Woodall, Minshall, Thomas & 
Co., 1907. 

Mead, G. H. — "Science in the High School." School Review, 
237, April, 1906. 

New York (State) Education Department. — Advance Sheets of 
Syllabus for Secondary Schools, 1910. Physical Science. 
Albany, New York State Education Department, 1910. 
51 pp. Chemistry, pp. 28-51. 

Peters, Fredus N. — "What and How Much in High School Chemis- 
try?" School Science and Mathematics, 107-15, Feb., 1908. 

Richards, T. W. — "The Value of Investigation to the Teacher of 
Chemistry." In New England Association of Chemistry 
Teachers, Report, 1909, pp. 18-34. 

Schock, E. P., and others. — "Symposium on the Purpose and 
Organization of Chemistry Teaching in Secondary Schools." 
School Science and Mathematics, May to Nov., 1909. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 4S3 

Smith, Albert L. — "Conditions under Which the Teacher of Chem- 
istry in High Schools is Working." School Science and Math- 
ematics, 237-40, Mar., 1910. 

Smith, Alexander, and Hall, Edwin H. — "The Teaching of Chem- 
istry and Physics in the Secondary Schools." $1.50, Long- 
mans. 

Sohon, Michael D. — "Chemistry in Secondary Schools." Science, 
979-83, June 24, 1910. 

Sohon, Michael D. — "The First Course in Chemistry." School 
Science and Mathematics, 605-11, Sept., 1910. 

Symposium on the Teaching of Chemistry to Beginning Students. 
School Science, 144-61, June, 1903. 

Talbot, H. P. — "The Outlook for a Better Correlation of Secondary 
School and College Instruction in Chemistry." Science, 
961-74, June 24, 1910. 

Wade, Frank B. — "The Purpose and Method of the Chemistry 
Course in the Public High School." School Science and 
Mathematics, 299-303, April, 1910. 

Welter, J. L. — "Chemistry in the High School." Pennsylvania 
School Journal, 338-40, Feb., 1908. 

Whitsit, Jesse E. — "High School Chemistry: The Content of the 
Course." Science, 974-79, June 24, 1910. 

Woodhull, John F. — "Modern Trend of Physics and Chemistry 
Teaching." New York, Educational Review Publishing 
Co., 1906, pp. 236-47. Reprinted from the Educational 
Review, New York, Mar., 1906. Also in Schoolmasters' 
Association of New York and Vicinity, Report, 1905-6, 

pp. 48-59- 
Woodhull, John F. — "Science for Culture." School Review, 123, 

Feb., 1907. 
Woodhull, John F., and others. — "The Teaching of Physical 

Science." Teachers College Record, n : 1, 1910. 
Works, G. A.— "A High School Course in Applied Chemistry." 

School Review, 560, Oct., 1910. 

"College Entrance Examination Board, Document 44," 1909. 
"Report of Committee of Nine, University of the State of New 

York." High School Bulletin, No. 7, 1900. 
"Requirements in Chemistry for Entrance to Harvard College and 

the Lawrence Scientific School," 1900. 



484 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books for the high school library: 

Bailey, E. H. S. — "Text-Book of Sanitary and Applied Chemistry." 
$1.40, Macmillan. 

Chittenden, R. H. — "Studies in Physiological Chemistry." $4.00, 
Scribner. 

Dodd, M. E. — "Chemistry of the Household." $1.50, American 
School of Home Economics, Chicago, 111. 

Duncan. — "Chemistry of Commerce." Harper 

Holleman. — "Organic Chemistry." Wiley. 

King, F. H— "The Soil." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Lassar-Cohn. — "Chemistry in Daily Life." $1.50, Lippincott. 

Mendeleeff. — "Principles of Chemistry." 2 vols., $10.00, Long- 
mans. 

Olsen. — "Quantitative Chemical Analysis." $4.00, Van Nostrand 
Co. 

Philip, J. C. — "Romance of Modern Chemistry." $1.50, Lippin- 
cott. 

Richards and Elliott. — "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleansing." 
$1.00, Home Science Pub. Co. 

Richter and Smith. — "Organic Chemistry." 2 vols., $6.00, Blakis- 
ton. 

Thorp, F. H— "Outlines of Industrial Chemistry." $3.75, Mac- 
millan. 

Walker, J. — "Introduction to Physical Chemistry." $3.25, Mac- 
millan. 

A valuable list of publications for free distribution, including 
many on different phases of applied chemistry (foods, soils, fertili- 
zers, etc.), can be obtained from the Secretary of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. Also a list of similar publications for sale at a nom- 
inal sum can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, 
Washington, D. C. 

The list of reference books given could be indefinitely extended. 
The free use of reference books in all branches should be encour- 
aged as much as possible. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 485 

CHAPTER IX 

BIOLOGY 

General works for the teacher: 
Coulter, J. M. and J. G., and Patterson, A. J.— "Practical Nature 

Study and Elementary Agriculture." $1.35, Appleton. 
Ganong, W. F— "The Teaching Botanist." $1.25, Macmillan. 
Guyer, M. F. — "Animal Micrology." $1.75, University of Chicago. 
Hodge, C. F.— "Nature Study and Life." $1.50, Ginn. 
Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A. — "The Teaching of Biology in the 

Secondary School." $1.50, Longmans. 
Stevens, W. C. — "Plant Anatomy and Handbook of Microtechnic." 

$2.00, Blakiston. 

School Science and Mathematics. Chicago, published monthly; eleven 
volumes now completed. 

References for school library: 

Chapman, F. M. — "Handbook of North American Birds." $2.00, 
$2.50, Appleton. 

Coulter, J. M.; Barnes, C. R.; Cowles, H. C— "A Textbook of Bot- 
any." 3 vols., $2.00 each, American Book Co. 

Duggar, B. M. — "Plant Physiology with Special Reference to Plant 
Production." Gives special attention to agriculture. $1.60, 
Macmillan. 

Harmer, S. F., and Shipley, A. E.— "The Cambridge Natural His- 
tory." 10 vols., $32.50, Macmillan. 

Hegner, R. W. — "An Introduction to Zoology." Discusses Ameri- 
can animals. $1.90, Macmillan. 

Hertwig, R. (Translation by J. S. Kingsley).— "A Manual of 
Zoology." Comprehensive. Accentuates relations of ani- 
mals to man. $3.00, Holt. 

Kellogg, V. L— "American Insects." $5.00, Holt. 

Lankester, E. R.— "A Treatise on Zoology." Macmillan. Not yet 
completed; six volumes published. 

Nature Library, The. 15 vols. $4.00 each, Doubleday, Page. Some 
of the books in this series ("The Frog Book," "The Moth 
Book," "The Butterfly Book") are excellent. 



486 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Robinson, B. L., and Fernald, M. L — "Gray's New Manual of 
Botany." $2.50, American Book Co. 

Strassburger, E.; Noll, F.: Schenck, H.; Karsten, G. (Lang, W. H.). 
—"A Textbook of Botany." $4.00, Macmillan. 

Walter, H. E — "Wild Birds in City Parks." $.35, McClurg. 

Ward, H. B. — "Fresh- Water Biology." In press. Comprehen- 
sive, with keys to all groups of American fresh-water animals 
and plants. Wiley. 

High school texts: 
Bergen, J. Y., and Caldwell, O. W— "Practical Botany." $1.30, 

Ginn. 
Bergen, J. Y., and Davis, B. M.— "Principles of Botany." $1.50, 

Ginn. 
Hunter, C. W. — "Essentials of Biology." $1.25, American Book 

Co. Presented in Problems. 
Jordan, D. S.; Kellogg, V. L., and Heath, H.— "Animal Studies." 

$1.25, Appleton. 
Linville, H. R., and Kelly, H. A.— "A Textbook in General Zoology." 

$1.50, Ginn. 

Laboratory manuals: 

Pepoon, H. S.; Mitchell, W. R.; Maxwell, F. B.— "Studies of Plant 
Life." $.50, Heath. 

Sharpe, R. W. — "Laboratory Manual in Biology." $.75, Ameri- 
can Book Co. 

Whitney, W.; Lucas, F. C; Shinn, H. B., and Smallwood, M. E.— 
"A Guide for the Study of Animals." $.50, Heath. 

CHAPTER X 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Teaching physiography in high schools: 
Brigham, A. P. — "Physical Geography in Secondary Schools." 

Proc. N. E. A., 1897. 
Bryce, James. — "Importance of Geography in Education." Jour. 

of Geog., vol. I, no. 4. 
Davis, W. M.— "Geographical Essays," chaps. II, IV, VII, VIII, 

LX, XI, XII. $2.75, Ginn. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 487 

DeGarmo, Charles. — " Correlation of Studies. " Educational Review, 

May, 1893. 
Dryer, Charles. R.— "What is Geography?" Jour. 0} Geog., Oct., 

Dryer, Charles R— "The New Geography: Studies in Indiana 

Geography." The Inland Pub. Co. 
Fenneman, N. M.— "Problems in the Teaching of Physical Geog- 
raphy in the High Schools." Jour, of Geog., Mar., 1909. 
Kelley, Leslie C. — "Physical Geography in Secondary Schools." 

Jour, oj Geog., Jan., 1908. 
Marbut, C. F. — "A College Unit in Physical Geography." Jour. 

oj Geog., May, 1909. 
Piatt, Mary I. — "Physical Geography in High Schools." Jour. 0} 

Geog., Oct., 1904. 
Redway, J. W. — "The New Basis of Geography." $1.00, Macmillan. 
Salisbury, Rollin D. — "Physiography in the High School." Jour. 

0} Geog., Nov., 1910. 
Stearns, Jane. — "A Physiography Laboratory." Jour, of Geog., 

Dec, 1909. 
Sutherland, W. J— "The Teaching of Geography." $1.25, Scott, 

Foresman. 
Trotter, Spencer. — "The Social Function of Geography." Fourth 

Year Book, Nat. Herbart Soc. 

For high school libraries: 

Chamberlin and Salisbury. — "Geology." $12.00, Holt. 

Davis, W. M. — "Elementary Meteorology." $2.50, Ginn. 

Davis, W. M. — "Geographical Essays." $2.75, Ginn. 

Fairbanks, H. W. — "Practical Physiography." Allyn and Bacon, 

Geikie, A. — "Outlines of Field Geology." $1.00, Macmillan. 

Gregory, Keller, and Bishop. — "Physical and Commercial Geog- 
raphy." $3.00, Ginn. 

Guyot, Arnold.— "The Earth and Man." $1.75, Scribner. 

Henry, A. J.— "Climatology of the United States." U. S. Weather 
Bureau. 

Jordan, David Starr. — "Science Sketches." $1.50, McCIurg. 

Le Conte, Jos. — "Compend of Geology." $1.20, American Book Co. 

Merrill, A. P.— "Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils." $4.00, Mac- 
millan. 



488 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mill, Hugh R. — "The New International Geography. " $3.50, Ap- 

pleton. 
Mill, Hugh R— "The Realm of Nature." $1.50, Scribner. 
Powell, J. W., and others. — "Physiography of the United States." 

American Book Co. 
Roberts, R. D.— "The Earth's History." $1.50, Scribner. 
Russell, I. C. — "Glaciers of North America." $1.75, Ginn. 
Russell I. C. — "Lakes of North America." $1.50, Ginn. 
Russell, I. C. — "Rivers of North America." $2.00, Putnam. 
Russell, I. C— "North America." $2.50, Appleton. 
Salisbury, R. D. — "Physiography for High Schools." $1.50, Holt. 
Shaler, N. S— "Aspects of the Earth." $2.50, Scribner. 
Shaler, N. S. — "Nature and Man in America." $1.50, Scribner. 
Shaler, N. S — "Outlines of the Earth's History." $1.75, Appleton. 
Tarr, R. S. — "Economic Geology." $3.50, Macmillan. 
Tarr, R. S. — "Elementary Geology." $1.40, Macmillan. 
Waldo, Frank. — "Elementary Meteorology." $1.50, American 

Book Co. 
Ward, R. deC. — "Practical Exercises in Meteorology." $1.12, 

Ginn. 

CHAPTER XI 

ENGLISH 

Aiken, W. E. — "The Study of English Literature." Education, 
26 : 36. 

Ashmun, M. — "The Study of the English Masterpieces." Educa- 
tion, 27 : 628. 

Baldwin, C. S. — "The Value of the Office Hour in the Teaching of 
Rhetoric." Educational Review, 8 : 290. 

Bates, Arlo. — "Talks on the Study of Literature." $1.50, Houghton. 

Blakely, G. S. — "Teachers' Outlines for Studies in English." $.50, 
American Book Co. 

Bleyer, W. G— "The High School Course in English." $.15, 
Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin. 

Bolenius, E. M. — "Oral Composition." Education, 31 : 449. 

Carpenter, Baker, and Scott. — "The Teaching of English." $1.50, 
Longmans. Contains a full bibliography to 1903. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 489 

Chubb, Percival. — "The Teaching of English." $1.00, Macmillan. 

Cooper, L. — "On the Teaching of Written Composition." Educa- 
tion, 30 : 421. 

Cross, W. L. — "English in the Schools." Education, 28 : 537. 

Danton, G. H. — "Required Reading and Company." Educational 
Review, 41 : 510. 

Dole, C. A.— "The Use of the Model in English Composition." 
Education, 24 : 426. 

Dunbar, A. M. — "The Training of a Teacher of English." Educa- 
tion, 29 : 97. 

Durand, G. H. — "The Teaching of English in the Secondary 
Schools." Education, 28 : 15. 

Eliot, C. W. — "The Differentiation of the High School Course in 
English." Education, 31 : 639. 

Faunce, W. H. P. — "The Humanizing of Study." School Review, 
16 : 492. 

Firkins, O. W. — "The Teaching of Literature." Education, 28 : 306. 

Foster, W. T. — "A Talk with Teachers of English." Educational 
Review, 31 : 198. 

Fulton, M. G. — "Defence of the Special Teacher of Composition." 
Nation, 86 : 463. 

Gardiner, J. H. — "Teaching English in the Schools." Outlook, 
94 : 626. 

Hagarty, L. D. — "The Formation of Literary Taste." Educa- 
tional Review, 33 : 402. 

Hinsdale, B. A. — "Teaching the Language Arts." $1.00, Appleton. 

Hitchcock, A. M. — "Problems in the Teaching of Composition." 
Holt. 

Hitchcock, A. M. — "How to Study Fiction." Allyn and Bacon. 

Hitchcock, A. M. — "An Experiment in Correcting Compositions." 
Educational Review, 7 : 240. 

Hitchcock, A. M. — "Economy in Teaching Composition." Educa- 
tion, 24 : 348. 

Hopkins, E. M. — "Handbook of English." University of Kansas. 

Lewis, F. W. — "Qualifications of the English Teacher." Educa- 
tion, 23 : 15. 

Lewis, W. D. — "Teaching of English." Outlook, 94 : 631. 

Libby, W.— "Forms of High School Recitation." Education, 28: 
' 608. 



490 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Maby, M. C. — "Esthetic Appreciation of Literature in Secondary 

Schools." School Review, 15 : 731. 
Maby, M. C— "For the Love of It." Outlook, 90 : 565. 
Marsh and Royster. — "Teachers' Manual for the Study of English 

Classics." Scott, Foresman. 
McDonald, J. W— "The Plight of English in the American High 

School." Education, 25 : 16. 
McMurry, C. A. — "Special Method in the Reading of Complete 

English Classics." $.75, Macmillan. 
Miller, R. D. — "Teaching of English." Nation, 90 : 208. 
Miller, R. D— "Power to Think Straight." Nation, 91 : 2,i2»- 
Mumford, A. D. — "Aim of the High School Course in Composition." 

Education, 28 : 608. 
Neilson, W. A. — "What the College Has a Right to Expect of the 

Schools in English." School Review, 16 : 73. 
Palmer, G. H— "Self-Cultivation in English." $.10, Crowell. 
Porter and Clarke. — "New Ideas in Teaching English Literature." 

Poet Lore, 8 : 432; 9 : 585. 
Ratigan, W. P. — "A Study of First Year English in the Secondary 

School." Bulletin of Marquette University, No. 4. 
Scott, F. N— "A Brief Catechism on Text-Books in English." 

Educational Review, 37 : 359. 
Scudder, H. E. — "The Educational Law of Reading and Writing." 

Atlantic, 73 : 252. 
Shackford, M. H. — "On Teaching Elementary English." Educa- 
tional Review, 30 : 303. 
Sisson, E. O. — "The High School's Cure of Souls." Educational 

Review, 35 : 359. 
Stevens, W. L. — "Co-operation in English Teaching." Nation, 

86 : 303. 
Thomas, C. S. — "How to Teach the English Classics." Hough- 
ton. 
Thurber, S. — "Five Axioms of English Composition Teaching." 

School Review, 5 : 7. 
Trent, Hanson, and Brewster. — "An Introduction to the English 

Classics." Ginn. 
Willock, J. H. — "Teaching of Elementary English." Education, 

31 : n. 

Proceedings of the National Education Association. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 491 

Proceedings of the North Central Association of Colleges and Sec- 
ondary Schools. 

Course Books of High Schools, e. g., Oak Park, 111.; New Bedford, 
Mass. 

Syllabus for Secondary Schools, English, New York State Educa- 
tion Department, Albany. 

Catalogue of Music Publications of Celebrated Authors Whose 
Poems Have Been Set to Music. Ditson. 

The English Journal. — The University of Chicago Press. Organ 
of the National Council of Teachers of English. 



CHAPTER XII 

PUBLIC SPEAKING AND VOICE TRAINING 

For the teacher: 

Baker, G. P.— "Forms of Public Address." $1.25, Ginn. 

Bautain, M. — "The Art of Extempore Speaking." $1.50, Scribner. 

Beecher, H. W. — "Oratory." $.50, Scrantom, Wetmore. 

Brooks, P. — "Lectures on Preaching." $1.20, Dutton. 

Buckley, J. M. — "Extemporaneous Oratory." $1.50, Methuen. 

Corson, H. — "The Aims of Literary Study." $.75, Macmillan. 

Corson, H. — "The Voice and Spiritual Education." $.75, Mac- 
millan. 

Curry, S. S. — "The Province of Expression." $2.00, Boston 
Expression Co. 

Curry, S. S. — "Vocal and Literary Interpretation of the Bible." 
$1.50, Macmillan. 

Curry, S. S. — "Mind and Voice." $1.50, Boston Expression Co. 

Higginson, T. W. — "Hints on Writing and Speech Making." $.50, 
Longmans. 

Hussey, M. S— "Helps in Teaching Reading." $.75, Lothrop. 

Kleiser, Grenville. — "How to Speak in Public." $1.25, Funk and 
Wagnalls. 

Lawrence, E. G. — "Speech Making." $1.25, Barnes. 

Legouve', E. — "Reading as a Fine Art." $.50, Penn. 

Matthews, B. — "Notes on Speech Making." $.50, Longmans. 

Matthews, Wm. — "Orators and Oratory." 



492 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mills, W. — "Voice Production." $2.25, Lippincott. 

Ott, E. A. — "How to Use the Voice in Speaking and Reading." 

$1.25, Hinds, Noble. 
Ott, E. A.— "How to Gesture." $1.00, Hinds, Noble. 
Pearson, P. M. — Various articles in Talent for 1904, 1905, 1906, 

1907. See especially June, 1904. 
Phillips, A. E— "Effective Speaking." $1.50, Newton Co. 
Phillips, A. E. — "Natural Drills in Expression." $1.25, Newton Co, 
Scott, W. D— "The Psychology of Public Speaking." $1.25. 

Pearson. 
Sears, L— "The History of Oratory." $1.50, Scott. 
Sears, L. — "The Occasional Address." $1.25, Putnam. 
Shurter, E. D. — "Extempore Speaking." $.90, Ginn. 
Trueblood, T. C. — "Reports of National Speech Arts Association." 

1893-1911. 

For the library: 

Blackstone, H. E. — "The Best American Orations of To-day." 
$1.25, Hinds, Noble. 

Bryan, W. J. — "The World's Famous Orations." 10 vols., Funk 
and Wagnalls. 

Clark, S. H. — "Handbook of Best Readings." $1.25, Scribner. 

Clark and Blan chard. — "Practical Public Speaking." $1.00, Scrib- 
ner. 

Cumnock, R. L. — "Choice Readings." $1.50, McClurg. 

Fulton and Trueblood. — "Patriotic Eloquence." $1.00, Scribner. 

Fulton and Trueblood. — "Choice Readings." $1.50, Ginn. 

Fulton and Trueblood. — "Standard Selections." $1.25, Ginn. 

Harding, S. B. — "Select Orations Illustrating American History." 
$1.25, Macmillan. 

Henley, W. E. — "Lyra Heroica." $1.25, Scribner. 

Knapp and French. — "The Speech for Special Occasions." Mac- 
millan. 

Pearson, P. M. — "Intercollegiate Debates." $1.50, Hinds, Noble. 

Pearson, P. M. — The Speaker, a quarterly magazine of the best cur- 
rent material for public reading. $1.50 per year, Hinds, 
Noble. 

Reed, T. B. — "Modern Eloquence." 10 vols., $40.00, Morris. 

Ringwalt, R. C. — "Modern American Oratory," $1.00, Holt. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 493 

Ringwalt, R. C. — "Briefs on Public Questions." Si. 20, Longmans. 
Shurter, E. D. — "Masterpieces of Modern Oratory." $1.00, Ginn. 
Shurter, E. D. — "Representative College Orations." $1.25, Mac- 

millan. 
Shurter, E. D.— "American Oratory." $1.65, Southwest Pub. Co. 
Shurter, E. D. — "Modern American Speaker." $1.25, Hinds, Noble. 
The Public Speaking Review. $1.50 a year, monthly, Swarthmore, 

Pa. 
Wagner, L. — "Modern Political Orations." $1.00, Holt. 
"Winning Orations, Prize Orations in the Inter-State Association." 

2 vols. $2.50, Crane Co. 
"Winning Speeches, Prize Orations in the Northern Oratorical 

League." $1.25, American Book Co. 

Text-books: 

Baker and Huntington. — "Principles of Argumentation." $1.12, 
Ginn. 

Eisenwein, J. Berg. — "How to Attract and Hold an Audience." 
$1.25, Hinds, Noble. 

Foster, W. T. — "Argumentation and Debate." $1.25, Houghton. 

Fulton and Trueblood. — "Essentials of Public Speaking for Sec- 
ondary Schools." $1.00, Ginn. 

Fulton and Trueblood. — "Practical Elements of Elocution for 
Advanced Pupils." $1.50, Ginn. 

Laycock and Scales. — "Argumentation and Debate." $1.10, Mac- 
millan. 

MacEwan, E. J. — "Essentials of Argumentation." $1.12, Heath. 

Pattee, G. K. — "Practical Argumentation." $1.10, Century Co. 

Phillips, A. E.— "Effective Speaking." $1.50, Newton Co. 

Shurter, E. D. — "Public Speaking." $.90, Allyn and Bacon. 

Thomas, R. W.— "Argumentation and Debate." $1.25, American 
Book Co. 



494 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER XIII 

LATIN 

The following list of books and journals contains only those which 
are believed to be the most valuable to the average teacher who 
reads only English. Limitations of space exclude many which are 
more valuable for special purposes or for some teachers. A somewhat 
longer list can be found on p. 197 of Bennett and Bristol's "Teach- 
ing of Latin and Greek." A full bibliography of the discussion on 
the place of the classics in education can be gleaned from the notes 
of Professor Shorey's chapter in Kelsey's "Latin and Greek in 
American Education." Every teacher should, as a matter of course, 
subscribe to one or more of the classical journals, and keep in- 
formed on new books from their book reviews. 

Journals: 
The Classical Journal. The University of Chicago Press. 
The Classical Weekly. Teachers College, New York City. 

Aims and methods: 
Bennett and Bristol. — "The Teaching of Latin and Greek." $1.50, 

Longmans. 
Kelsey, F. W. — "Latin and Greek in American Education." $1.50, 

Macmillan. 

The language: 
Bennett, C. E. — "The Latin Language." $1.00, Allyn and Bacon. 
Byrne, Lee.— "The Syntax of High School Latin." $.75, The 

University of Chicago Press. 
Lewis, C. T. — "Elementary Latin Dictionary." $2.00, American 

Book Co. 
Lewis and Short. — "Harper's Latin Dictionary." $6.50, American 

Book Co. 
Lodge, Gonzalez. — "The Vocabulary of High School Latin." $1.50, 

Teachers College. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 495 

Lodge, Gonzalez. — " Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar." $1.20, Uni- 
versity Publishing Co. The best American grammar for ref- 
erence; but the teacher should have several grammars. 

White, J. T— "English-Latin Lexicon." $1.50, Ginn. 

General reference: 

Peck, H. T. — "Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and An- 
tiquities." $6.00 in one vol., $7.00 in two, American Book Co. 

Sandys, J. E. — "A Companion to Latin Studies." University 
Press, Cambridge. 

History of literature: 
Crutwell, C. T. — "History of Roman Literature." $2.50, Scribner. 
Duff, J. W— "A Literary History of Rome." $4.00, Scribner. 
Mackail, J. W. — "Latin Literature." $1.25, Scribner. 

History: 
Abbott, F. F — "Roman Political Institutions." $1.50, Ginn. 
Bury, J. B. — "The Student's History of the Roman Empire." $1.50, 

American Book Co. 
How and Leigh. — "A History of Rome to the Death of Caesar." 

$2.00, Longmans. 
Mommsen, Theodor. — "The History of Rome," 5 vols., $10.00, 

Scribner; also in Everyman's Library, 4 vols., $.35 each, 

Dutton. 
Oman, C. W. C. — "Seven Roman Statesmen." Edward Arnold, 

London. 
Pelham, Henry. — "Outlines of Roman History." $1.75, Putnam. 

Roman life: 
Abbott, F. F— "Society and Politics in Ancient Rome." $1.25, 

Scribner. 
Abbott, F. F— "The Common People of Ancient Rome." $1.50, 

Scribner. 
Fowler, W. W— "Social Life at Rome." $2.25, Macmillan. 
Johnston, H. W.— "The Private Life of the Romans." $1.50, 

Scott, Foresman. 

The city and forum: 
Hulsen, Ch— "The Roman Forum," translated by J. B. Carter, 
Stechert. 



496 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lanciani, R. — "The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome." 

$4.00, Houghton. 
Platner, S. B. — "The Topography and Monuments of Ancient 

Rome." $3.00, Allyn and Bacon 

Caesar: 

Fowler, W. W. — "Caesar," in "Heroes of the Nations Series." $1.50, 
Putnam. 

Holmes, T. R.— "Caesar's Conquest of Gaul." $7.75, The Claren- 
don Press. 

Holmes, T. R. — "Translation of Caesar's Commentaries on the 
Gallic War." $1.40, Macmillan. 

Cicero: 
Boissier, G. — "Cicero and His Friends." $1.75, Putnam. 
Forsyth, W. Q. C— "Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero." $2.50, Scrib- 
ner. 

Virgil: 

Ballard, H. H— "The /Eneid of Virgil," translated into English 
verse. $.60, Scribner. 

Boissier, G. — "The Country of Horace and Virgil." $1.75, Putnam. 

Conington, John. — "Virgil," 3 vols., the second containing the first 
six books of the ^Eneid. George Bell and Sons, London. 

Conington, John. — "The ^Eneid of Virgil," translated into English 
prose. $.25, Macmillan. 

Fairbanks, Arthur. — "The Mythology of Greece and Rome." $1.50, 
Appleton. 

Glover, T. R— "Studies in Virgil." $2.25, Edward Arnold, Lon- 
don. 

Sellar, W. Y .— "Virgil." $2.25, The Clarendon Press. 

Williams, T. C— "The ^Eneid of Virgil," translated. $1.50, 
Houghton. 

Maps and illustrations: 
Kiepert, H— "Atlas Antiquus." $3.00, Rand, McNally. 
Kiepert, H— "Wall Maps." Rand, McNally. 
Schreiber, Th. — "Atlas of Classical Antiquities." $6.50, Mac- 
millan. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 497 

Schreiber, Th— "Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography," in 
"Everyman's Library," 27 maps, with index. $.35, Dut- 
ton. 

Photographs may be obtained from Fratelli Alinari, 137 Via del 
Corso, Rome, Italy, or D. Anderson, 85 Piazza di Spagna, 
Rome, Italy. 

Slides may be obtained from Levy & ses Fils, 44, Rue Letellier, 44. 
Paris XVe. 

Casts may be obtained from P. P. Caproni and Bro., 1914 Wash- 
ington Street, Boston. 



CHAPTER XIV 

MODERN LANGUAGES 

Journals: 

Modem Language Notes, Baltimore; articles on research more than 
on methods; good reviews. 

Modem Language Teaching, London W., organ of the English Mod- 
ern Language Association; much on methods. 

Die neuren Sprachen. 

Le maitre phonetique. 

Les Langues modernes. 

Bollelina di filogia moderna. 

Monatshejle }iir deutsche Sprache und Pddagogik, Milwaukee. 

Publications 0} the American Modem Language Association, Cam- 
bridge. 

Methods: 

Bahlsen, L. — "The Teaching of Modern Languages." $.50, Ginn. 

Baumann, F. — "Reform und Anti-Reform im neusprachlichen Un- 
terricht." Berlin, 1902. 

Bierbaum. — "Die analytischdirekte Methode des neusprachlichen 
Unterrichts." Cassel. 

Brebner. — "The Method of Teaching Modern Languages in Ger- 
many." Macmillan. 

Breul. — "The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in Second- 
ary Schools." $.60, Macmillan. 

Breymann. — "Die neusprachliche Reform-Litteratur." Leipzig. 



498 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Collard. — "La methode directe dans 1'enseignement des langues 

vivantes." Bruxelles. 
Gouin, F. — "The Art of Teaching and Studying Languages." 

$2.75, Longmans. 
Heness, G. — Der neue Leitfaden, beim Unterricht in der deutschen 

Sprache. $1.20, Holt. 
Jespersen, O. — "How to Teach a Foreign Language," translated by 

Sophia Yhlen-Olsen. $.90, Macmillan. 
Sauveur. — "Introduction to the Teaching of Living Languages." 

$.25, Jenkins. 
Special Reports of the Educational Department of Great Britain, 

vol. III. 
Vie'tor. — "Die Methodik des neusprachlichen Unterrichts." Leipzig. 
Vietor. — "Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren." Heilbronn. 
Waetzold. — "Die Aufgabe des neusprachlichen Unterrichts und die 

Vorbildung der Lehrer." Berlin. 
Walter, M. — "Die Reform des neusprachlichen Unterrichts auf 

Schule und Universitat." Marburg. 

Courses: 
"Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements of 

the National Education Association," 1899. 
"Report of the Committee of Twelve of the American Modern Lan- 
guage Association," contained in the preceding, and issued 
separately by the United States Bureau of Education as 
chap. XXVI of the Commissioner's Report for 1899. 
"Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools and Colleges of 
the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the 
North Central States," 1908, Chicago (from the secretary of 
the association). 
"Report of a Committee of Nine of the Wisconsin Teachers' Asso- 
ciation," 1905, by A. R. Hohlfeld, Madison. 
The first three of these present graded lists of texts suggested for 
reading, with outlines of the kind and amount of work to be under- 
taken in each grade. 

For the use of the German department: 
"A History of Germany." Kohlrausch, Lewis, Bayard Taylor, or 
Sime. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 499 

Curme's "Grammar of the German Language." $3.50, Macmillan. 

Duden's "Orthographisches Worterbuch." 

Hempl's "German Orthography." $2.00, Ginn. 

Kohler's "Worterbuch" or, if it can be obtained, Muret-Sanders 

"Worterbuch." 
Konnecke's Bilderatlas zur deutschen Litteraturgeschichte. 
Sweet's "Primer of Phonetics." 
Thomas' "German Grammar" ($1.50, Holt) and several other 

school grammars than the one used in instruction. 
Vietor's "Die Aussprache des Schriftdeutschen." 

An atlas of Germany, as Andree, or Kiepert. 

A wall map of Germany (a good one published by Rand, McNally). 

Two histories of German literature, one illustrated, Vogt and Koch, 

or Konig, and at least one other: Scherer, Priest, Hosmer, 

Francke, or Robertson. 
Two or three German illustrated journals, as Ueber Land und Meer, 

Die Kunst fur Alle, Die Gartenlaube, Velhagen und Klasing's 

Deutsche Monatshejte. 
A German-American newspaper, as Die Illinois Staatszeitung, 

Chicago, or Die New Yorker Staatszeitung, New York City. 

For the use of the French department: 
Bellows' French-English Dictionary. $1.00, Holt. 
Bevier. — French Grammar. $1.00, Holt. 
Cledat. — Grammaire raisonnee. Jenkins. 
Doumic. — Histoire de la litterature frangaise. Stechert. 
Duruy. — History of France. Hachette. 

Edgren and Burnett's French-English Dictionary. $1.50, Holt. 
Larousse. — Petit Dictionnaire. All French. 
Passy. — Les Sons du Francais. Jenkins. 

Passy and Rambaud. — " Chrestomathie " : a good collection of selec- 
tions from French literature. 
Van Laun. — History of French Literature. 

Map of France. Johnson. 

Stereopticons, reflectoscopes, slides, etc.: 
A. H. Thompson & Co., Boston, Mass. 
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. 



500 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mcintosh Stereopticon Co., Chicago. 

T. H. McAllister, 49 Nassau Street, New York City. 

Foreign books, maps, etc.: 
G. E. Stechert & Co., 151 West 25th Street, New York. 
Carl Schonhof, 128 Tremont Street, Boston. 
W. R. Jenkins, for French books. 
Gustav Fock, Leipzig. 
F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig. 

Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago and New York (maps only). 
Em. Terquem, Paris. 
Picard et fils, Paris. 

Song books: 
Tonger's "Taschen -Album," Band 1 : "100 Volkslieder fur mittlere 

Stimme." 
"Gaudeamus, 200 ausgewahlte Volks u. Kommerslieder." 
"Deutsches Liederbuch fur amerikanische Studenten." $.75, Heath. 



CHAPTER XV 

HISTORY 

For the Library: 

The following lists of books for supplementary reading are in- 
tended to be suggestive only, and by no means contain all the titles 
in the fields of history, civil government, and economics that it is 
desirable for a high school library to have. Nevertheless, it will 
be of very much more avail to a school to have many copies of most 
of the books named than to have a longer list and but one book of 
each kind. 

Ancient history: 
Abbott, F. F.— "Short History of Rome." $1.00, Scott, Foresman. 
Baikie, J.— "The Story of the Pharaohs." $2.50, Macmillan. 
Bury, J. B.— "History of Greece." $1.90, Macmillan. 
Capps, E. — -"Homer to Theocritus." $1.50, Scribner. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 501 

Church, A. J.— "Roman Life in the Days of Cicero." $.75, Dodd, 

Mead. 
Davis, W. S.— "Outlines of Roman Empire." $.65, Macmillan. 
Day, E. — "Social Life of the Hebrews." $1.25, Scribner. 
Emerton, E. — "Introduction to the Middle Ages." $1.12, Ginn. 
Fling, F. M— "Source Book of Greek History." $1.00, Heath. 
Fowler, W. W— " Julius Caesar." $1.50, Putnam. 
Guerber, H. A.— "Myths of Greece and Rome." $1.50, American 

Book Co. 
Homer. — "Iliad," translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers. $.80, 

Macmillan. 
Homer. — "Odyssey," translated by Butcher and Lang. $.80, Mac- 
millan. 
How, W. W., and Leigh, H. D.— "History of Rome to the Death of 

Caesar." $2.00, Longmans. 
Jones, H. S. — "Roman Empire, B.C. 29 to a.d. 476." $1.50, 

Putnam. 
Mahaffy, J. P. — "Alexander's Empire." fi.50, Putnam. 
Maspero, G. — "Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria." $1.50, Appleton. 
Munro, D. C. — "Source Book of Roman History." $1.00, Heath. 
Oman, C. W. C. — "Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic." 

$1.60, Longmans. 
Plutarch. — "Lives," the so-called Dryden translation, revised by 

Clough. $2.00, Little, Brown. 
Seignobos, C. — "History of Ancient Civilization." $1.25, Scribner. 
Sophocles. — "Works." (Everyman's Library.) $.35, Dutton. 
Tucker, T. G— "Life in Ancient Athens." $1.25, Macmillan. 
Wheeler, B. I.— "Alexander the Great." $1.50, Putnam. 

Mediaeval and modern history: 
Adams, G. B.— "Civilization During the Middle Ages." $2.50, 

Scribner. 
Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L— "The Crusades." $1.60, Holt. 
Barry, W— "Papal Monarchy." $1.35, Putnam. 
Be"mont, C, and Monod, G. — "Medieval Europe, 395-1270." 

$1.60, Holt. 
Day, C. — "History of Commerce." $2.00, Longmans 
Eginhard.— "Life of Charlemagne." $.30, American Book Co. 
Fournier, A.— "Napoleon the First." $2.00, Holt. 



502 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gardiner, S. R.— "The Thirty Years' War." $1.00, Scribner. 

Hazen, C. D.— "Europe Since 1815." $3.00, Holt. 

Henderson, E. F. — "A Short History of Germany." $4.00, Mac- 

millan. 
Johnson, A. H. — "The Normans in Europe." $1.00, Scribner. 
Lane-Poole, S. — "The Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet 

Mohammed." $1.00, Macmillan. 
Lowell, E. J. — "Eve of the French Revolution." $2.00, Houghton. 
Mathews, S. — "The French Revolution." $1.25, Longmans. 
Motley, J. L.— "Peter the Great." $.25, Maynard. 
Munro, D. C.— "History of the Middle Ages." $.90, Appleton. 
Munro, D. C., and Sellery, G. C.— "Medieval Civilization." $1.25, 

Century Co. 
Ploetz, C. — "Epitome of Universal History." $3.00, Houghton. 
Robinson, J. H. — "History of Western Europe." $1.60, Ginn. 
Robinson, J. H. — "Readings in European History," abridged. 

$1.50, Ginn. 
Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A. — "Development of Modern 

Europe," vol. I, $1.50; vol. II, $1.60, Ginn. 
Rose, J. H. — "Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1 789-1815." 

$1.25, Macmillan. 
Seignobos, C. — "History of Contemporary Civilization." $1.25, 

Scribner. 
Shepherd, W. R.— "Historical Atlas." $2.50, Holt. 
Skrine, F. H. — "Expansion of Russia." $1.50, Macmillan. 
Thatcher, O. J., and McNeal, E. H. — "Source Book for Mediaeval 

History." $1.85, Scribner. 
Wakeman, H. O. — "European History, 1598-1715." $1.40, Mac- 
millan. 
Walker, W— "The Reformation." $2.00, Scribner. 

English history: 
Allen, F. — "Anglo-Saxon Britain." $1.00, Young. 
Bateson, M.— "Medieval England." $1.35, Putnam. 
Besant, W— "The Story of King Alfred." $.35, Appleton. 
Cheyney, E. P. — "An Introduction to the Industrial and Social 

History of England." $1.40, Macmillan. 
Cheyney, E. P. — "Readings in English History." $1.80, Ginn. 
Creighton, M.— "The Age of Elizabeth." $1.50, Longmans. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 503 

Freeman, E. A. — "William the Conqueror." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Gairdner, J. — "Houses of Lancaster and York." $1.00, Scribner. 

Gairdner, J. — "The English Church in the Sixteenth Century." 
$2.00, Macmiilan. 

Gardiner, S. R. — "The First Two Stuarts and the Puritan Revolu- 
tion, 1603-1660." $1.00, Longmans. 

Green, J. R.— "A Short History of the English People." $1.20, 
American Book Co. 

Green, Mrs. J. R. — "Henry the Second." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Harrison, F. — "Oliver Cromwell." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Ilbert, C. — "Parliament, Its History, Constitution and Practice." 
$.75, Holt. 

Jessopp, A. — "The Coming of the Friars." $1.25, Putnam. 

Lawless, E. — "The Story of Ireland." $1.50, Putnam. 

Montague, F. C. — "The Elements of English Constitutional His- 
tory." $1.25, Longmans. 

Morley, J.— "Walpole." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Oman, C. W. C. — "Warwick, the Kingmaker." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Ransome, C. — "History of England." $2.25, Macmiilan. 

Rosebery, Lord.— "Pitt." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Russell, G. W. E.— " William Ewart Gladstone." $1.00, Harper. 

Scarth, H. M. — "Roman Britain." $1.00, Young. 

Stubbs, W. — "Early Plantagenets." $1.00, Scribner. 

Thursfield, J. R— "Peel." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Traill, H. D— "William the Third." $.75, Macmiilan. 

Woodward, W. H. — "Short History of the Expansion of the Brit- 
ish Empire, 1500-1870." $1.00, Macmiilan. 

United States history: 
Brigham, A. P. — "Geographic Influences in American History." 

$1.50, Ginn. 
Brown, W. G. — "Andrew Jackson." $.65, Houghton. 
Burton, T. E.— "John Sherman." $1.25, Houghton. 
Cambridge Modern History, vol. VII, "The United States." $4.00, 

Macmiilan. 
Cheyney, E. P. — "European Background of American History." 

$2.00, Harper. 
Coman, K. — "Industrial History of the United States." $1.60, 

Macmiilan. 



504 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dodd, W. E.— "Statesmen of the Old South." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Elson, H. W— "History of the United States." $1.75, Macmillan. 

Fiske, J. — "Beginnings of New England." $2.00, Houghton. 

Fiske, J. — "Critical Period of American History, 1 783-1 789." 
$2.00, Houghton. 

Fiske, J. — "Old Virginia and Her Neighbors." 2 vols., $4.00, 
Houghton. 

Ford, P. L. — "The Many-Sided Franklin." $3.00, Century Co. 

Harding, S. B. — "Select Orations Illustrating American History." 
$1.25, Macmillan. 

Hart, A. B. — "Formation of the Union." $1.25, Longmans. 

Hart, A. B. — "Source Book of American History." $.60, Macmil- 
lan. 

Johnston, A. — "American Politics." $.80, Holt. 

Lecky, W. E. H. — "American Revolution," edited by J. A. Wood- 
burn. $1.25, Appleton. 

Lodge, H. C. — "George Washington." 2 vols., $2.50, Houghton. 

Lodge, H. C— "Daniel Webster." $1.25, Houghton. 

MacDonald, Wm. — "Documentary Source Book of American His- 
tory." $1.75, Macmillan. 

Morse, J. T., Jr. — "Abraham Lincoln." 2 vols., $2.50, Houghton. 

Parkman, F. — "The Oregon Trail." $.40, Ginn. 

Paxson, F. L. — "The Last American Frontier." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Paxson, F. L— "The Civil War." $.75, Holt. 

Sparks, E. E.— "Men Who Made the Nation." $2.00, Macmillan. 

Thwaites, R. G. — "Daniel Boone." $1.00, Appleton. 

Thwaites, R. G. — "The Colonies." $1.25, Longmans. 

Trent, W. P.— "Robert E. Lee." $.75, Small, Maynard. 

Wilson, W. — "Division and Reunion." $1.25, Longmans. 

Wilson, W— "The State." $2.00, Heath. 

Wister, O. E.— "Ulysses S. Grant." $.75, Small, Maynard. 

Civil government and economics (see "American history" for 
other titles): 
Baldwin, S. E. — "The American Judiciary." $1.25, Century Co. 
Bryce, J. — "The American Commonwealth." 2 vols., $4.00; abridged, 

1 vol., $1.75, Macmillan. 
Bullock, C. J.— "Introduction to the Study of Economics." $1.25, 
Silver, Burdett. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 505 

Bullock, C. J. — "Selected Readings in Economics." $2.25, Ginn. 

Commons, J. R. — "Trade Unionism and Labor Problems." $2.00, 
Ginn. 

Dewey, D. R. — "Financial History of the United States." $2.00, 
Longmans. 

Ely, R. T. — "Socialism and Social Reform." $1.50, Crowell. 

Fairlie, J. A. — "Local Government in Counties, Towns and Vil- 
lages." $1.25, Century Co. 

Fairlie, J. A. — "The National Administration of the United States." 
$2.50, Macmillan. 

Fetter, F. A. — "Principles of Economics." $2.00, Century Co. 

Finley, J. H., and Sanderson, J. F. — "The American Executive." 
$1.25, Century Co. 

Fuller, R. H. — "Government by the People." $1.00, Macmillan. 

Goodnow, F. J. — "Municipal Problems." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Henderson, C. R. — "Dependents, Defectives, Delinquents." $1.50, 
Heath. 

Hinsdale, A. B. — "The American Government." $1.25, American 
Book Co. 

Ilbert, C. — "Parliament, Its History, Constitution and Practice." 
$.75, Holt. 

Johnson, E. R. — "Elements of Transportation." $1.50, Appleton. 

Macy, J. — "Party Organization and Machinery." $1.25, Century 
Co. 

Ostrogorski, J. — "Democracy and the Party System." $1.75, 
Macmillan. 

Plehn, C. C— "Introduction to Public Finance." $1.75, Mac- 
millan. 

Reinsch, P. S. — "American Legislature and Legislative Methods." 
$1.25, Century Co. 

Scott, W. A.— "Money and Banking." $2.00, Holt. 

Taussig, F. W— "Tariff History of the United States." $1.25, 
Putnam. 

Taylor, H. C— " Introduction to the Study of Agricultural Eco- 
nomics." $1.25, Macmillan. 

Wilcox, D. F— "The American City." $1.25, Macmillan. 

Willoughby, W. F— "Territories and Dependencies." $1.25, 
Century Co. 



506 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Wines, F. H., and Koren, J.— "The Liquor Problem." $1.25, 

Houghton. 
Woodburn, J. A. — "The American Republic." $2.00, Putnam. 

For the teacher: 

Allen, J. W. — "The Place of History in Education." A sugges- 
tive discussion of what is history and what its values are for 
students. Treats of content of the study rather than of 
method of teaching. 

Barnes, Mary Sheldon. "Studies in Historical Method." $.90, 
Heath. The author was one of the leading advocates of the 
source method of teaching history, and here presents clearly 
the leading features of that plan. 

Bourne, Henry E. — "The Teaching of History and Civics." $1.50, 
Longmans. Because of the wide scope of its treatment and 
its wealth of material and suggestion, this constitutes the 
most serviceable hand-book for the high school teacher of 
these subjects. 

Hinsdale, B. A.— "How to Study and Teach History." $1.50, 
Appleton. When first issued, in 1893, this was one °f the 
most useful books in this field. It is now somewhat super- 
seded, yet still possesses serviceableness. Especially useful 
are the eight chapters devoted to the teaching of American 
history. 

Johnson, Henry. — "The Problem of Adapting History to Children 
in the Elementary Schools." The author brings sound ped- 
agogical theory, thorough historical scholarship, and successful 
experience in teaching to the discussion of his subject, and 
his book is full of suggestiveness for teachers in the high 
school as well as for those in the grades. 

Keatinge, M. W. — "Studies in the Teaching of History." $1.60, 
Macmillan. Though directed at English conditions, it has 
for the American teacher much that is very suggestive. The 
setting of problems in the teaching of history is strongly 
presented. 

Mace, W. H— "Method in History." $1.00, Ginn. Its contents 
are of varying value: not all are to be accepted, but much 
is very helpful. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 507 

Vincent, John M. — "Historical Research. An Outline of Theory 
and Practice." This for high school teachers is the best 
presentation in English of the modern historical method. 
It gives a comprehensive treatment of the subject, dealing 
with the various sorts of source material, with the critical 
interpretation of historical evidence and the construction of 
the historical narrative. 

"The Study of History in Schools." A Report to the American 
Historical Association by a Committee of Seven. An in- 
dispensable book for the prospective teacher as during the 
last decade it has been the greatest single influence in shap- 
ing text-books, courses of study, methods, and ideals of his- 
tory teaching in the high school. 

"The Study of History in the Secondary Schools." A Report to 
the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five. 
This committee was appointed ten years after the appoint- 
ment of the Committee of Seven, to consider the recommenda- 
tions of that committee, and to determine how far they should 
be modified. It constitutes a valuable supplement to the 
earlier report, and should be used in connection with it. 

"Report of the Committee of Five of the American Political Science 
Association on Instruction in American Government in Sec- 
ondary Schools," in the Proceedings of the Association, 1908, 
vol. V, pp. 219-57. This contains a careful consideration 
of the status of civics teaching, and presents recommendations 
as to the course of study, methods of teaching, preparation 
of teachers, the text-book, and the books for supplementary 
reading. Both the origin and contents of this Report make it 
a very important source of material for the teachers of civics. 

"History Syllabus for Secondary Schools." "Historical Sources 
in Schools." "American Civil Government. An Outline 
Study for Secondary Schools." These are the reports of 
three committees of the New England History Teachers' 
Association. The first is a comprehensive list of topics and 
references in ancient, mediaeval, modern, English, and Amer- 
ican history, and all are of great service both to the high school 
student and to the teacher. Each volume gives much ad- 
vice and helpful direction as to the use of the carefully selected 
references which it contains. 



508 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Andrews, C. M.; Gambrill, J. M., and Tall, L. L— "A Bibliography 
of History for Schools and Libraries." $.60, Longmans. 
A report of a committee of the History Teachers' Association 
of the Middle States and Maryland. Many of the books 
whose titles are given are critically estimated, so that it con- 
stitutes a very useful guide in determining what books are 
best adapted to the various requirements of collateral reading. 
This report is supplemented each year by the annual bibliogra- 
phy issued by the North Central History Teachers' Association. 

The American Historical Review. This is obtained through mem- 
bership in the American Historical Association which brings 
also the "Annual Report." Both these are valuable for the 
critical reviews and special articles. 

The History Teachers' Magazine. Published monthly during the 
school year since September, 1909, it has been of great value 
to its subscribers, and its files contain very much of worth for 
all teachers of history. 



CHAPTER XVI 

DRAWING, FREEHAND AND MECHANICAL 

Miscellaneous: 

"American Education in Fine and Industrial Art." U. S. Bureau 
of Education, 1885. 

"Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States," edited 
by Dr. James P. Haney. American Art Annual, New York. 

"Industrial Drawing from the Standpoint of an Architect," Fred- 
erick Law Olmsted, Jr. "Industrial Drawing from the 
Standpoint of a Manufacturer," Milton P. Higgins. 68th 
Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, 
i9 3-4, PP- 263-76. 

"Upon Teaching Design." James Hall in "Year Book of the 
Council of Supervisors," vol. 3, 1903. 

For High School Libraries: 

Magazines: 
The International Studio. Lane. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 509 

The School Arts Book. This is a monthly publication. School 

Arts Publishing Co., 120 Boylston St., Boston. 
The Manual Training Magazine. Peoria, 111. 

Books: 
Batchelder, E. — "Principles of Design." $3.00, Inland Printer. 
Bennett, Charles A. — "Problems in Mechanical Drawing." $1.00, 

Manual Arts Press. 
Cadness, H. — "Decorative Brush Work and Elementary Design." 

$1.40, Scribner. 
Caffin, C. H. — "American Masters of Painting." $1.25, Double- 
day, Page. 
Cross, A. K— "Light and Shade." $1.00, Ginn. 
Day, L. F.— "Nature: The Raw Material of Ornament." $2.00, 

Scribner. 
Day, L. F. — "Ornament: The Finished Product of Nature." $3.00, 

Scribner. 
Day, L. F. — "Nature in Ornament." $5.00, Scribner. 
Day, L. F. — "Pattern Design." $3.00, Scribner. 
Day, L. F. — "Ornament and Its Application." $3.25, Scribner. 
Day, L. F.— "Alphabets Old and New." $1.25, Scribner. 
Day, L. F. — "Lettering in Ornament." $2.00, Scribner. 
Fergusson, J. — "Handbook of Architecture in All Ages." Dodd, 

Mead. 
Glazier, R. — "A Manual of Historic Ornament." $2.00, Scribner. 
Haddon, A. C. — "Evolution of Art." $1.50, Scribner. 
Harrison, B. — "Landscape Painting." $1.50, Scribner. 
Jackson, F. G. — "Lessons on Decorative Design." $2.00, Scribner. 
Jackson, F. G. — "Theory and Practice of Design." $2.50, Scribner. 
Johnston, E. — "Writing, Illuminating and Lettering." $2.00, 

Macmillan. 
Maginnis, C. D. — "Pen Drawing." $1.00, Bates and Guild. 
Mathewsen, Frank E. — "Notes for Mechanical Drawing." $1.25, 

Taylor-Holden Co. 
Munsell, A. H— "A Color Notation." $1.00, Geo. H. Ellis. 
Reinach, S.— "Apollo." $1.50, Scribner. 



510 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER XVII 

MUSIC IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

i. Music in the high school: 

For further information on what the high school should demand of 
the grammar schools, see "Report of Committee on Public 
Schools," by Ralph L. Baldwin, in Proceedings Music 
Teachers' National Association, 1908. 

For musical work demanded of the high schools by the colleges, see 
"Condensed Report of High School Music Courses" in 
Proceedings N. E. A., 1904, p. 702. 

For further publications on entrance requirements and reports on 
experiments recognizing independent instrumental work of 
high school students in Brookline and Chelsea, see material 
edited by the New England League. Address Leo Rich Lewis, 
Tufts College, Mass. 

For suggestions on conducting high school music, see "Music in 
High Schools," by O. McConathy, in Proceedings N. E. 
A., 1908, p. 844, and "High School Courses; Appreciation 
Work," by E. B. Birge, in Proceedings Music Teachers' 
National Association, 1909, p. 142. 

For practical suggestions for organizing and managing choruses, 
with a selected list of compositions, see "Syllabus for Sec- 
ondary Schools, 1910, Music," New York State Educational 
Department, Albany. 

For suggestions with reference to organizing instrumental clubs, 
write to A. G. Marshall, Maidstone Orchestral Association, 
Hatton House, Hatton Gardens, London, E. C. This Eng- 
lish movement has reached half a million children and the 
plan of organization is worthy of study and application to 
American conditions. 

For compositions suitable for school orchestras, see classical and 
popular lists published by Carl Fischer, Fourth Avenue, 
New York. 

For suggestions with reference to player pianos, see lists prepared 
by Leo Rich Lewis, Tufts College, Massachusetts, and four 
publications of the Aeolian Co., Fifth Avenue, New York. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 511 

"The Pianola," by Henry J. Wood. "Twenty Musical 
Evenings," by Henry T. Finck. "The Pianolist," by Gustav 
Kobbe. "The Music Lovers' Library." 
For suggestions as to how to awaken interest in instrumental music, 
see "Education through Music," chaps. XIV to XVII, inclu- 
sive, by Charles H. Farnsworth. $1.00, American Book Co. 

2. Books helpful for teachers and students are as follows: 

Dictionaries: 

Baker, Dr. Theodore. — "A Biographical Dictionary of Musicians." 
$3.50, Schirmer. 

Elson, Lewis C. — "Elson's Pocket Music Dictionary." $.35, Ditson. 
Should be owned by each student. 

Grove, Sir George. — "Dictionary of Music and Musicians," 5 vols., 
Macmillan. A library in itself. 

Riemann, Hugo. — "Dictionary of Music." $4.50. English trans- 
lation by J. S. Shedlock. An admirable one volume ency- 
clopedia. 

Histories: 

Baltzell, W. J.— "A Complete History of Music." $1.75, Schirmer. 
Includes some portraits and musical examples. 

Dickinson, Edward. — "A Study of the History of Music." $2.50, 
Scribner. A helpful guide for more exhaustive reading. 

Hamilton, Clarence. — "Outiines of Musical History." $1.50, Ditson. 
Helpful to those wishing to arrange a course of historical 
recitals. 

Pratt, Waldo S. — "History of Music." $3.00, Schirmer. An ex- 
cellent arrangement of material expressed through the use of 
different types. 

Theoretic and descriptive: 
Broadhurst, John. — "Students' Handbook of Acoustics." Wm. 

Reeves, London. The phenomena of sound as connected 

with music. 
Crowest, Frederick J.— "The Story of Notation." $1.25, Scribner. 

Throws light on the complexities of our notation. 
Elson, Arthur.— "Music Club Programs from All Nations." $1.25, 

Ditson. 



512 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Hadow, W. H. — "Sonata Form." Paper, $1.00; boards, $1.25, 

Novello, Ewer. 
Hale, Philip. — ''Boston Symphony Orchestra Book." 
Lavignac, Albert. — "Music and Musicians." Edited by H. E. 

Krehbiel. $3.00, Holt. An excellent book of reference. 
Mason, Daniel Gregory. — "The Orchestra and Orchestral Music." 

A popular treatment of the subject. 
Parry, C. H. H— "The Evolution of the Art of Music." $1.75, 

Appleton. An account of the origin of music that every one 

should read. 
Riemann, Hugo. — "Catechism of Musical History," part 2, $1.00. 

A history of musical forms with biographical notices of most 

illustrious composers. 

On appreciation: 
Dickinson, Edward. — "The Education of a Music Lover." $1.50, 

Scribner. 
Grove, Sir George. — "Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies." 

$2.40, Novello, Ewer. 
Henderson, W. H. — "What is Good Music?" $1.00. Suggestive 

to persons desiring to cultivate a taste in musical art. 
Kobbe, Gustav— "Ring of the Nibelung." $1.00, Schirmer. A 

brief descriptive analysis containing all the leading motives. 
Krehbiel, H. E.— "How to Listen to Music." $1.25, Scribner. A 

short and recent treatment of the appreciation of music. 
Lavignac, Albert. — "The Musical Dramas of Richard Wagner, and 

His Festival Theatre in Bayreuth." $2.50. Translated from 

the French by Esther Singleton. 
Mathews, W. S. B— "How to Understand Music." Vol. I, $1.50, 

Presser. One of the oldest and best books on the apprecia- 
tion of music. 
Surette and Mason. — "Appreciation of Music." $1.50, Novello, 

Ewer. 
Upton, George P.— "The Standard Operas." $1.50, McClurg. 
Upton, George P.— "The Standard Oratorios." $1.50, McClurg. 
Upton, George P.— "The Standard Symphonies." $1.50, McClurg. 
These three volumes by Upton are brief and clear statements of 
the subjects with which they deal. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 513 

CHAPTER XVIII 

MORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

Care has been taken to include books that are comprehensive and 
suggestive in treatment. Those wishing a more extended bibliog- 
raphy are referred to Religious Education, vol. V, no. VI. 

i. Books and monographs dealing with the larger aspects of the 
subject: 

Adler, Felix.— "The Moral Education of Children." $1.50, Ap- 
pleton. One of the best-known books, but of little value for 
its bearing on the subject in the high school. 

Coe, George A. — "Education in Religion and Morals." $1.35, 
Revell. The emphasis is upon religion as including morals 
and upon "the wholeness of life, from which no human good 
can be excluded." 

DeGarmo, Charles. — "Principles of Secondary Instruction," vol. 
Ill, "Ethical Training." $1.00, Macmillan. The most sys- 
tematic treatment accessible in English. An attempt "to 
bring into clearer light the moral functions of knowledge," 
with particular reference to the adolescent. 

Dewey, John. — "Moral Principles in Education." $.35, Houghton. 
Emphasizes the importance of the moral training that comes 
from participation in the life of the school and from methods 
of instruction. Opposed to direct ethical instruction. 

Griggs, Edward H. — "Moral Education." $2.00, Huebsch. As a 
whole, very general in treatment. Chaps. XVII-XXV deal 
more directly with the subject. 

Hall, G. Stanley. — "Youth: Its Education, Regimen, and Hy- 
giene." $1.50, Appleton. An epitome of the author's larger 
work on adolescence. Chap. XII deals with moral and re- 
ligious training. 

Hart, Joseph K.— "A Critical Study of Current Theories of Moral 
Education." $.50, University of Chicago Press. A scholarly 
statement of the need of a reconstructed education which 
"will carry with it its own moral inspirations and sanctions." 



514 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Home, Herman H. — "Idealism in Education." $1.25, Macmillan. 
The theme is "man-making." While regarding men and 
women as products of heredity and environment, in chap. 
IV the author puts emphasis on will, through which man 
contributes to his own making. 

Ladd, G. T. — "The Philosophy of Conduct." $3.50, Scribner. 

Palmer, George H. — "Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools." 
$.35, Houghton. Recognizes the need of ethical instruction 
and sees in the life of the school and in good teaching the best 
means. Opposed to formal ethics below the high school. 

Rugh, Charles E., and others. — "Moral Training in the Public 
Schools." The California Prize Essays. $1.50, Ginn. The 
fourth essay contains suggestions of practical value. 

Sadler, M. E. (Editor). — "Moral Instruction and Training in 
Schools — Report of an International Inquiry." 2 vols., $3.00, 
Longmans. A world view of the subject, describing different 
national policies for moral training. 

Schroeder, H. H— "The Psychology of Conduct." $1.25, Row, 
Peterson. A practical treatment of the subject of training 
in social conduct. 

Seth, James. — "A Study of Ethical Principles." $2.00, Scribner. 
Traces the course of ethical thought and presents a discussion 
of the principles which must underlie a system of ethics. 

Sisson, Edward O. — "The Essentials of Character." $1.00, Mac- 
millan. A forceful, direct discussion of the subject of char- 
acter as "springing from native impulses and tendencies, 
which moral education must direct into the service of human 
ideals." 

2. Books containing directions and material for the application of 
suggested lines of work: 

Beveridge, Albert J.— "The Young Man and the World." $1.50, 

Appleton. 
Bryce, James. — "The Hindrances to Good Government." $1.15, 

Yale University Press. 
Cabot, Mrs. Ella L.— "Everyday Ethics." $1.25, Holt. (See, by 

the same author, "An Experiment in the Teaching of Ethics," 

Educational Review, 34 : 434-47.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 515 

Canfield, James H— "The College Student and His Problems." 

$1.00, Macmillan. 
Coler, C. S.— "Character Building." $.75, Hinds, Noble. 
Davis, J. B. — "Plan for Vocational Guidance in the City of Grar>d 

Rapids," 1910. 
Dole, Charles F— "The American Citizen." $.80, Heath. 
Drysdale, William. — "Helps for Ambitious Girls." $1.50, Crowell. 
Dunn, A. W. — "The Community and the Citizen." $.80, Heath. 
Eliot, Charles W. — "The Durable Satisfactions of Life." First Four 

Essays. $1.00, Crowell. 
Everett, C. C— "Ethics for Young People." $.50, Ginn. 
Gulick, Luther H— "The Efficient Life." $1.20, Doubleday, Page. 
Hadley, A. T.— "Standards of Public Morality." $1.00, Mac- 
millan. 
Hadley, A. T.— "Morals in Modern Business." $1.25, Yale Uni- 
versity Press. 
Hyde, William D. W— "Practical Ethics." $.80, Holt. 
Jenks, Jeremiah W. — "Life Questions of High School Boys." $.40, 

Y. M. C. A., New York, 1908. 
Lamed, Joseph N. — "A Primer of Right and Wrong." $.70, 

Houghton. 
McLeod, L. C. — "A Young Man's Problems." $.50, Flanagan. 
Markwick, W. F., and Smith, W. A.— "The True Citizen." $.60, 

American Book Co. 
Munger, Theodore T — "On the Threshold." $1.00, Houghton. 
Parsons, Frank. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. 
Parton, James. — "Captains of Industry; or, Men of Business Who 

Did Something Besides Making Money." 2 vols., $1.25 

each, Houghton. 
Phillips, J. H— "Old Tales and Modern Ideals." $1.00, Silver, 

Burdett. 
Reich, Emil— "Success in Life." $1.50, Duffield. 
Reid, Whitelaw, and others.— "Careers for the Coming Men." 

$1.50, Saalfield. 
Rollins, Frank W.— "What Can a Young Man Do?" $1.50, Little, 

Brown. 
Roosevelt, Theodore.— "Applied Ethics." William Belden Noble 

Lectures, 1910. $.75, Harvard University. 
Root, Elihu— "The Citizen's Part in Government." $1.00, Scribner. 



516 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Sharp, Frank C. — "Success: A Course in Moral Instruction for the 
High School." Madison, Wis., 1909. 

Smiles, Samuel.— "Self-Help." Edited by R. H. Bower. $.60, 
American Book Co. 

Stockwell, Herbert G. — "Essential Elements of Business Charac- 
ter." $.60, Revell. 

Stoddard, John S— "What Shall I. Do?" $1.00, Hinds, Noble. 

Strong, Josiah. — "The Times and Young Men." $.75, Baker. 

Warner, B. E— "The Young Woman in Modern Life." $.85, 
Dodd, Mead. 

Washington, Booker T. — "Character Building." $1.50, Double- 
day, Page. 

Weaver, E. W. (Chairman of Committee). — "Choosing a Career: A 
Circular of Information for Boys." Prepared for the High 
School Teachers' Association, New York City, 1909. A 
similar circular is issued for girls. 

Wilbur, Mary A. — "Every-day Business for Women," chap. XVIII. 
$1.25, Houghton. 

Wilson, Calvin D. — "Making the Most of Ourselves." First and 
Second Series. $1.00, McClurg. 

Wingate, Charles F.— "What Shall Our Boys Do for a Living?" 
$1.00, Doubleday, Page. 



CHAPTER XIX 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

(The books marked with an asterisk deal with the more general phases 
of hygiene and physical education, and might with profit be read by 
high school pupils.) 

*Allen, W. H.— "Civics and Health." $1.25, Ginn. An excellent 

book. 
Bancroft, J. H. — "Games for the Playground, Home, School, and 

Gymnasium." $1.50, Macmillan. 
♦Chittenden, R. H.— "Studies in Physiological Chemistry." $4.00, 

Scribner. 
*Clouston, T. S— "The Hygiene of Mind." $2.50, Dutton. 
Dawson, W. H. — "School Doctors in Germany," London, 1908. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 517 

*Dudley, G., and Kellor, F. A. — "Athletic Games for Women." 
$1.25, Holt. 

*Fisher, Irving.— "National Vitality: Its Wastes and Conservation." 
"Report of the National Conservation Commission," vol. HI, 
pp. 620-751, Washington, 1909. A very important contribu- 
tion; thorough discussion of the unnecessary economic loss 
from disease, etc. 

♦Gulick, L. H. — "Physical Education by Muscular Exercise." 
$.75, Blakiston. A valuable book. 

Gulick, L. H., and Ayres, L. P. — "Medical Inspection of Schools." 
$1.00, Charities Publication. 

*Gulick Hygiene Series. Ginn. Intended primarily for use in the 
grades, but read with interest and profit by high school pupils. 

Henderson, C. H. — "Education with Reference to Sex." The 
Eighth Year Book of the National Society for the Scientific 
Study of Education, Chicago, 1909. An excellent discussion 
of the different aspects of this subject. It contains a good 
bibliography. 

Hogarth, A. H. — "Medical Inspection of Schools," London, 1909. 
A good discussion of medical inspection in England. 

Hunt, Caroline L— "The Daily Meals of School Children," U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 3, 1909. 

Johnson, G. E. —"Education by Plays and Games." $.90, Ginn. 

Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A. — "The Teaching of Biology in 
the Secondary Schools." $1.50, Longmans. It contains a 
good chapter on the teaching of physiology. 

*Mero, E. B. — "American Playgrounds." $1.50, American Gym- 
nasia Co. 

Porter, Charles. — "School Hygiene and the Laws of Health." 
Longmans. 

"Proceedings of the Conference on the Teaching of Hygiene and 
Temperance in the Universities and Schools of the British 
Empire," London, 1907. 

"Proceedings and Year Book of the Playground Association of 
America," for 1907, 1908, and 1909, New York. 

"Proceedings of the First, Second, and Third Congresses of the 
American School Hygiene Association," Springfield, 1910. 

"Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the American School Hy- 
giene Association," Springfield, 1910. 



518 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Reports of the International Congress of School Hygiene: 

"Bericht ueber den I. International Kongress fur Schulhygiene," 
Niirnberg, 1904. 

"Transactions of the Second International Congress on School Hy- 
giene," London, 1907. 

"III. Congres International d'Hygiene Scholaire," Paris, 1910. 

*Sargent, D. A.— "Physical Education." $1.50, Ginn. 

School Science and Mathematics, 10 vols., Chicago, 1901-1910. 
Contains a number of excellent articles on the teaching of 
physiology. 

Welpton, W. P.— "Physical Education and Hygiene." $1.75, W. B. 
Clive, London, 1908. 

*Wood, T. H— "Health and Education." The Ninth Year Book 
of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago, 
1910. Strong chapters on "Health Instruction" and "Phys- 
ical Education." 



CHAPTER XX 

SEX PEDAGOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

Acher. — "The Psychology, Pedagogy, and Hygiene of Sex Develop- 
ment." 

Cramer, A. — "Pubertat und Schule," Leipzig. 

Dock, Lavinia. — "Hygiene and Morality." Putnam. 

Eckstein, E. — "Die Sexualfrage in der Erziehung des Kindes." 

Forel, A. — "Die Sexuelle Frage." 

Fiirth, H. — "Die geschlechtliche Aufklarung in Haus und Schule." 

Hall, G. S. — "Educational Problems," vol. I, chap. VII, Appleton. 

Henderson, C. R. — "Eighth Year Book of the National Society for 
the Study of Education," 1909. 

Holler, K. — "Die Sexuelle Frage und die Schule," Leipzig. 

Moll, A.— "Die Sexuelle Erziehung." Zeitsch. f. pad Psy. Path, 
und Hygiene, 1908. 

Parkinson, W. D. — "Sex and Education." Educational Review, 
Jan. 1, 1911. 

Renault, J. — "Comment preparer l'enfant an respect des questions 
sexuelles." Education Familiale, vol. VIII, 1907. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 519 

Sarason, D. — "Zum Problem der Sexual-belehrung." Zeilsch. }. 

Schulgesundheitspflege, vol. XX, 1907. 
Schmidt, B. — "In Zeitsch. f. lateinlose hohere Schulen," vol. XVII, 

1905-6. 

Kongress der deutschen Gesellschaft zum Bekampfung der Ge- 

schlectskrankheiten, Sexualpadagogik, Barth, Leipzig, 1907. 
Articles by Mast, Kleinschmidt, Siebert, and others in Natur und 

Schule, Leipzig, 1906. 
Articles in Mutterschutz, Zeitschr. j. Kinder} or schung, Zeitschr. }. 

Schulgesundheitspflege, Die Neue Generation, and Die Neue 

Deutsche Schule. 



CHAPTER XXI 

AGRICULTURE 

The literature of agricultural education in secondary schools con- 
sists largely of the publications of the United States Department of 
Agriculture, short articles, addresses, and committee reports to be 
found in educational journals and in the proceedings of the Na- 
tional Education Association. The few more pretentious works and 
their principal characteristics are here noted: 

Bailey, Liberty Hyde. — "On the Training of Persons to Teach 
Agriculture in the Public Schools." United States Bureau of 
Education, Bulletin No. i, 1908. Pp. 52. Has a good bibli- 
ography. 

Bricker, Garland Armor. — "The Teaching of Agriculture in the 
High School." $1.00, Macmillan. The latest work devoted 
mainly to pedagogical phases of the problem. Teaching 
principles well illustrated by sample exercises. 

Davenport, Eugene. — "Education for Efficiency." $1.00, Heath. 
Pp. 184, 1909. Part I is a series of addresses on general 
phases of industrial education and, in part, an argument 
against the establishment of special agricultural high schools. 
Part II treats of agriculture as a part of the curriculum. 



520 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Davis, Benjamin Marshall. — Series of articles in Elementary School 
Teacher, vols. X and XI, on various phases and agencies of 
agricultural education. Also has a good bibliography. Is- 
sued in book form by University of Chicago Press, under 
title of "Recent Developments in Agricultural Education." 

Jewell, James Ralph. — "Agricultural Education." United States 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 2, 1907. Chapters on 
secondary and other phases of the subject. Gives a general 
view of the foreign field and bibliography complete to the 
date of issue. 

Main, Josiah. — "Educational Agriculture." Issued as a bulletin 
of the State Normal School, Hays, Kansas. Pp. 74, 1910. 
Principally a discussion of the psychological basis of agri- 
cultural instruction. Furnishes excellent lists for laboratory 
equipment. 

Robison, Clarence Hall. — "Agricultural Instruction in the High 
Schools of the United States." $1.50. Columbia University 
Contributions to Education, Teachers College Series. Pp. 
205, 191 1. Descriptive and statistical treatment of the move- 
ment. Bibliography brought down to 191 1 and arranged for 
topical reference. 

Most prominent among the many works written for reference, gen- 
eral reading, and for use in the colleges, are those edited by 
Bailey: "The Rural Science Series," the "Cyclopaedia of 
American Agriculture" (Macmillan), and the "Cyclopaedia 
of American Horticulture" (Macmillan). 



CHAPTER XXII 

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

A great deal has been written upon the subject of commercial 
education. The articles mentioned in the following references will 
enable one to obtain a good general idea of the current thought on 
the subject. These articles cover practically all phases of the sub- 
ject, not only of commercial education in general, but also a consid- 
erable number of special features of the subject. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 521 

Clark, G. A. — "Commercial Branches in the High School Curricu- 
lum." Educational Review, June, 1909. 

Curry, James S.— "Past, Present, and Future of Commercial Edu- 
cation." Journal National Education Association, 1910. 

DeGarmo, Charles. — "Methods of Preparing Teachers of Commer- 
cial Schools in Germany." Journal National Education 
Association, 1908. 

Ellis, C. B. — "Purpose of a Good Business Department in a Public 
High School." School Review, Feb., 1903. 

Garbutt, J. R— "The High School Commercial Course: Its Sub- 
jects, Their Practical and Educational Value." Journal 
National Education Association, 1908. 

Green, J. M. — "The Relation between General and Commerical 
Education." Journal National Education Association, 1907. 

Herrick, Cheesman A. — "Commercial Education as a Branch of 
Vocational Training." Journal National Education Asso- 
ciation, 1910. 

Herrick, Cheesman A. — "Preparation and Improvement of Commer- 
cial Teachers." Journal National Education Association, 1908. 

Irish, C. W. — "Place of Commercial Studies in the High School." 
School Review, Sept., 1002. 

Lakey, Frank E. — "How to Make Commercial Courses More Effi- 
cient." Journal National Education Association, 1910. 

Laughlin, J. S. — "Higher Commercial Education." Atlantic 
Monthly, May, 1902. 

Person, H. S. — "Professional Training for Business." World's 
Work, May, 1904. 

Pitman, J. A.— "The Education and Professional Training of Com- 
mercial Teachers." Journal National Education Association, 
1910. 

Stevenson, W. C. — "Qualification of Commercial Teachers." Jour- 
nal National Education Association, 1905. 

Walker, J. Brisben. — "What Should Be the Education of a Business 
Man?" Journal National Education Association, 1905. 
The annual reports for the past ten years of the National Commer- 
cial Teachers' Federation contain a vast amount of interesting and 

valuable material on practically every phase of commercial educa- 
tion. Information as to these reports may be obtained from Mr. 

J. C. Walker, secretary of the Federation, Detroit, Mich. 



522 BIBLIOGRAPHY 



CHAPTER XXIII 

VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL AND ITS RELATION 
TO MANUAL TRAINING 

Bloomfield, Meyer. — "The Vocational Guidance of Youth." River- 
side Educational Monographs. $.35, Houghton. 

Dean, A. D— "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century Co. 
The best single treatise on the need of industrial education in 
the United States. Contains a valuable bibliography. 

Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education." $1.00, American Book 
Co. A somewhat philosophical treatment of the subject, 
showing the influence on society of vocational training. 

Kerschensteiner, George. — "Education for Citizenship." $1.00, 
Rand, McNally. 

Kimball. — "Industrial Education." Published by School of Edu- 
cation, Cornell University, 191 1, $.50. 

Parsons, F. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. 

Wright, C. D — "The Industrial Evolution of the United States." 
$1.25, Scribner. 

"Report of Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Educa- 
tion," submitted to the National Council of Education, July, 
1910. Published in Proceedings of National Education As- 
sociation, Winona, Minnesota, 19 10. A most comprehensive 
and valuable report, combining the historical, theoretical, 
and practical aspects of the subject. 

"Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools of the City of Bos- 
ton," 19 10. An interesting statement of the progressive steps 
taken in the direction of vocational training by the city of 
Boston. 

"Bulletins of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education," Nos. 1-13: especially No. 2, "Selected Bibliog- 
raphy on Industrial Education; " No. 11, "A Descriptive List 
of Trade and Industrial Schools in the United States;" 
No. 12, "Legislation upon Industrial Education in the United 
States;" No. 14, "The Trade Continuation Schools of Mu- 
nich." Published by the Society, 20 West 44th Street, New 
York City. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 523 

"Report of Special Committee on Industrial Education," submitted 
to the American Federation of Labor, Toronto, Nov., 1909. 
Published by the American Federation of Labor, Washington, 
D. C. 

"Report of Michigan State Commission on Industrial and Agricul- 
tural Education," Dec, 1910. Published by the Commission, 
S. O. Hartwell, Kalamazoo, Michigan, secretary. 

"Report of Special Investigation of Industrial Education by De- 
partment of Commerce and Labor." Washington, D. C, 191 1. 

"Industrial Education," in Teachers College Record, September, 
191 1, Columbia University, New York, $.30. 

"Report of Commission Upon Plans for the Extension of Industrial 
and Agricultural Training in the State of Wisconsin." Pub- 
lished by The Commission, Madison, Wis., 191 1. 



CHAPTER XXD7 

PRACTICAL ARTS FOR GIRLS 

Economics of clothing: 
Dooley— "Textiles." $1.00, Heath." 
Richards, Ellen H— "The Cost of Living." $1.00, Wiley. 

Home sanitation: 
Gulick, Charlotte V.— "Emergencies." $.40, Ginn. 
Jewett, Frances G.— "Town and City." $.50, Ginn. 
Osborne, Charles Francis.— "The Family House." $1.00, Penn 

Pub. Co. 
Terrill, Bertha M— "Household Management." $1.25, From the 

Library of Home Economics, The American School of Home 

Economics, Chicago. 
Wilbur, Mary A.— "Every-day Business for Women." $1.25, 

Houghton. 

House furnishing: 
Daniels, Fred. H— "Furnishing a Modest Home." $1.00, Davis 
Press. 



524 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Social relations and conduct: 
Bishop, Emily M— "Daily Ways to Health." $1.50, Huebsch. 
Conyington, Mary. — "How to Help." $1.50, Macmillan. 
Jewett, Frances G. — "Good Health." $.40, Ginn. 
Learned, Mrs. Frank. — "Etiquette of New York To-day." $1.25, 

Stokes. 
Learned, Mrs. Frank. — "Moral Instruction in the Ethical Culture 

School," Edited by Superintendent Lewis, Central Park West 

and 63d Street, New York. 

Recreation and enjoyment: 
Bancroft, Jessie H. — "Games for the Playground, Home, School, 

and Gymnasium." $1.50, Macmillan. 
Blanchan, Neltje.—" Nature's Garden" (Wild Flowers). $3.00, 

Doubleday, Page. 
Henderson, W. J. — "What is Good Music." $1.00, Scribner. 
Krehbiel, H. E. — "How to Listen to Music." $1.25, Scribner. 
Martin, Martha Evans. — "The Friendly Stars." $1.25, Harper. 
Miller, Olive Thorne— "First Book of Birds." $1.00, Houghton. 
Parkhurst, H. E.— "The Birds' Calendar." $1.50, Scribner. 
Upton, G. P.— "The Standard Operas." $1.50, McClurg. 
Upton, G. P.— "The Standard Symphonies." $1.50, McClurg. 
Van Dyke, John C. — "How to Judge a Picture." $.60, Hunt and 

Eaton. 
White, Mary. — "How to Make Baskets." First and Second Books. 

$1.00, Doubleday, Page. 
White, Mary.— "Handbook of Sports." Girls' Branch Public 

Schools Athletic League of New York City. Spalding. 



CHAPTER XXV 

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

The historical aspect: 
Brown, E. E. — "The Making of Our Middle Schools," chapters on 

academies. $3.00, Longmans. 
Calkins, M. W— "Introduction to Psychology," chap. XXVIII. 

$2.00, Macmillan. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 525 

Kiilpe, O.— "Outlines of Psychology," Introduction. $2.60, Mac- 

millan. 
Villa.— "Contemporary Psychology," chap. I. $2.75, Macmillan. 

For Class Room Use: 

Several are mentioned which would not be complete enough for 
use as the text-book basis of a course, although they are valuable 
for high school use. 

Baldwin, J. M.— "Story of the Mind." $.35, Appleton. 

Betts, G. H— "The Mind and Its Education." $1.25, Appleton. 

Charters, W. W— "Methods of Teaching." $1.10, Row, Peterson. 

Harvey, N. A. — "Principles of Teaching." $1.25, Row, Peterson. 

James, William. — "Talks to Teachers." $1.50, Holt. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — "Fundamentals of Child Study." $1.25, Mac- 
millan. 

McKenny, C— "The Personality of the Teacher." $1.00, Row, 
Peterson. 

McMurry, C— "How to Study." $1.25, Houghton. 

O'Shea, M. V. — "Education as Adjustment." $1.50, Longmans. 

Thorndike, E. L. — "Human Nature Club." $1.25, Longmans. 

Titchener, E. B. — "Primer of Psychology." $1.00, Macmillan. 

Wenzlaff, G. G— "The Mental Man." $1.10, Merrill. 
There are special chapters in Dewey's "How We Think" and in 

Miller's "Psychology of Thinking," especially those which make 

practical for education the doctrines of functional psychology that 

are simple enough for high school use. 

I am inclined to recommend to high school teachers of psychology 

either the book by Betts or that by Wenzlaff as the basis of the 

course and then to group around this most closely special selections 

from McMurry, Dewey, Miller, Charters, and James, reaching out 

into other books according as these may not supply the material 

wanted in the course. 

For the teacher: 
Angell, J. R— "Psychology." $1.50, Holt. 
Bolton, F. E. — "Principles of Education." $3.00, Scribner. 
Calkins, M. W.— "A First Book in Psychology." $1.90, Macmillan. 
Calkins, M. W. — "Introduction to Psychology." $2.00, Macmillan. 



526 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dewey, J.— "How We Think." $1.00, Heath. 

Ebbinghaus, H. — "Psychology : An Elementary Text-Book." $1.20, 
Heath. 

Hall, G. S— "Youth." $1.50, Appleton. 

Henderson, E. N. — "Principles of Education." $1.75, Macmillan. 

Home. — "Philosophy of Education." $1.50, Macmillan. 

Judd, C. H. — "Psychology: General Introduction." $1.50, Scribner. 

King, I. — "Psychology of Child Development." $1.00, University 
of Chicago Press. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — "Genetic Psychology." $1.25, Macmillan. 

McDougall, W. — "Introduction to Social Psychology." $1.50, Luce. 

Miller, I. E — "Psychology of Thinking." $1.25, Macmillan. 

Morgan, C. Lloyd. — "Animal Behavior." $2.50, Longmans. 

Morgan, C. Lloyd. — "Psychology for Teachers." $1.25, Scribner. 

Ribot, T. — "Psychology of the Emotions." $1.50, Scribner. 

Romanes. — "Animal Intelligence." $1.75, Appleton. 

Ruediger, W. C. — "Principles of Education." $1.25, Houghton. 

Scott,)W. D. — "Psychology of Advertising." $2.00, Small, Maynard. 

Seashore, C. E. — "Elementary Experiments in Psychology." $1.00, 
Holt. 

Stout, G. F— "Manual of Psychology." $1.50, Hinds, Noble. 

Swift, E. J.— "Mind in the Making." $1.50, Scribner. 

Titchener, E. B. — "A Text-Book in Psychology." $2.00, Macmil- 
lan. 

Washburn, M. F— "The Animal Mind." $1.60, Macmillan. 

Witmer, L. — "Analytic Psychology." $1.50, Ginn. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY 

Lists of books suitable for high school libraries have been pub- 
lished by the Minnesota Public School Library Commission, the 
Departments of Public Instruction of North Dakota and New Jersey, 
the Oregon Library Commission, and the Education Department 
of Wisconsin. The list published by the Public Library of Brook- 
line, Mass., entitled "Something to Read for Boys and Girls," 1908, 
will be found useful in high school work. The Free Public Library 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 527 

of Newark, N. J., has published a list of books in the library of the 
Ballinger High School, Newark, entitled "Reading for Pleasure and 
Profit." "The Practical Use of Books and Libraries," by Gilbert 
O. Ward, Supervisor of High School Branches, Cleveland Public 
Library, published by the Boston Book Co., 191 1, is an excellent 
manual to put into the hands of high school students. A teaching 
outline to accompany this work is issued separately. 

Grateful acknowledgment of help in the preparation of the fol- 
lowing list is made to Miss Mary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High 
School, Brooklyn, who has done much to better conditions in our 
high school libraries. 

Abbot, A.— "Reading of High School Pupils." School Review, 
10 : 585. Statistical tables made up from a list of 178 "best 
books" submitted to some 2,500 high school pupils for a vote 
as to their popularity. A black list is made up of books 
which received the largest number of votes of disapproval, 
also a reading list of books which proved the most popular. 
Interesting deductions are submitted as to the kinds of books 
boys and girls like at various stages of high school develop- 
ment. 

Aley, Robert J. — "Books and High School Pupils." Proceedings, 
N. E. A., 1909, 844-48. 

Ames, A. S., and Rathbone, J. A. — "Instruction in the Use of Refer- 
ence Books and Libraries in the High Schools." Library 
Journal, 1898, 23 : c. 86-91. Account of library work done in 
Mt. Vernon Seminary and Pratt Institute High School; also 
answers to questions on library work in high schools. 

Anthony, J. B. — "Books as Tools." Chaatauquan, May, 1900, 
31 : 143. Indicates some of the most useful reference books 
needed by a village library, with prices and reasons for the 
choice. 

Ashmun, M. — "Library Reading in the High School." School 
Review, 17 : 618-22 and 701-4, Dec. and Nov., 1909, and 
Mar., 1910. Practical suggestions as to how to conduct li- 
brary reading classes in the high school, the amount of read- 
ing required, and the kind of books selected. Use of pictures 
recommended, portraits of authors, photographs of places 
described make the work interesting. Avoid monotony. 



528 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Atkinson, F. W.— "Reading of Young People." Library Journal, 
1908, 33 : 129-34. Shows the need of library guidance 
through the high school period to keep the pupils' reading 
up to standards set in grammar school. 

Bates, W. H— "The Library as an Aid to School Work." School 
Review, 1899, 7 : 179. The education which has not taught 
the student the love of reading is not a success. The student 
must acquire the ability to recognize good books and the 
habit of reading them. But the average student will hardly 
reach the best results without careful guidance and seasonable 
suggestions. 

Bishop, W. W. — "School Libraries and Public Libraries." Public 
Libraries, 1896, 1 : 95. A plea for independent school libra- 
ries. 

Bostwick, A. E— "The Library and the School." ("The American 
Public Library," 1910, pp. 95-107.) Discusses school libra- 
ries, school work in libraries, model school collections, Sun- 
day-schools, text-books, and selective education. 

Dana, J. C. — "Book-Using Skill in Higher Education." A. L. A. 
Bulletin, No. 3, 191-95 (S. 1909). Crying need of instruction 
in the use of the library for the pupils of high schools, normal 
schools, colleges, and universities. 

Dorey, Milnor. — "What Are Our High School Pupils Reading?" 
School Review, 1907, 15 : 299. 

Elmendorf, H. L. — "Some Things a Boy of Seventeen Should Have 
an Opportunity to Read." American Monthly Review of 
Reviews, 1903, 28 : 713. Suggestions to parents, teachers, and 
librarians as to what books a boy should read and the time 
and the manner in which his attention should be called to 
them. 

Finney, B. A. — "High School Instruction in Use of Reference 
Books." Public Libraries, 1899, 4 : 315-17. Urges such in- 
struction and outlines a course. 

Fletcher, M. S. — "Instruction to High School Students in the Use 
of a Library." Library Journal, 1904, 29 : 481. An ac- 
count of the library work done in the Jamestown High 
School. 

Gaillard, E. W.— "The Difficulty of the High School Library." 
School Review, 1907, 15 : 245. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 529 

Hall, M. E— "What the Librarian May Do for the High School." 
Library Journal, 1909, 34 : 154. Suggests ways in which the 
school librarian may help the teachers, interest the pupils, and 
make the library an effective department. 

Haney, J. D — "How Shall the Public Libraries Help the High 
School?" Public Libraries, 1902, 7 : 224. Advocates 
branch libraries in high schools superintended by trained 
librarian. 

"High School Library Problem." School Review, 1906, 14 : 762. 

Holland, E. O. — "The Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary 
School." Proceedings, N. E. A., 1903, 961-66. Teacher and 
librarian to teach student to do as definite laboratory work in 
the library as in the sciences, to supplement the poverty of 
the school text with the riches of the library. Since most of 
us must be imitators, students should be taught to know and 
emulate the world's best men. Graduates of high schools, as 
a result of their education and culture, should be able to 
improve social and political conditions of city or country. 

Hopkins, Florence M. — "Library Work in High Schools." Public 
Libraries, 1905, 10 : 170. Gives outline of work done in 
Detroit Central High School. 

Hopkins, Florence M. — "Methods of Instruction in the Use of 
High School Libraries." Proceedings, N. E. A., 1005, 858. 
A well-selected and well-catalogued library is a university for 
the people and it is the duty of the high school to train pupils 
to appreciate these library universities. In Detroit Central 
High School they have systematized the teaching of simple 
reference points, one English lesson a term being devoted to 
the study of library aids. 

Hopkins, Florence M. — "The Place of the Library in High School 
Education." Library Journal, Feb., 1910, 35 : 55-60. 
Points out the great lack and greater need of systematic in- 
struction in the use of reference books and reference guides. 
Outlines briefly a course of eight simple lessons. 

Johnston, W. D.— "The Library as a Reinforcement of the School." 
Proceedings of the Forty-seventh University Convocation of 
the State of New York, Oct., 1909. N. Y. (State) Education 
Department, Bulletin No. 460, Dec, 1909. American Edu- 
cation, 13 : 208-1 1. The library must be recognized as an 



530 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

integral part of the educational system, not merely an adjunct 
to the school, but a complement to it. It is recommended 
that the superintendent of schools be a member of the board 
of library trustees and that the librarian be a member of the 
school board. The value of collateral and vacation reading 
is discussed. 

Jones, Ralph K. — "A Problem of the College and School Library." 
Library Journal, Jan., 1912, 37 : 22-23. Gives figures show- 
ing that the schools are sending to college and into the world 
graduates untrained in the use of libraries and not given to 
their habitual use, and urges the establishment in every school 
of ajibrary which shall contain suitable reference books. Co- 
operation between the public library and the school libraries 
should be expected and required. 

Judd, C. H. — "The School and the Library." Elementary School 
Teacher, Sept., 1910, 11 : 28-35; also in A. L. A. Bulletin, 
Sept., 1910, 4 : 607-11. Suggests the use of the "study 
period" for work in the library. 

Matthews, Brander. — "Books and Boys." Independent, 67 : 1117- 
19, Nov. 18, 1909. Plea not to expect passionate and en- 
thusiastic admiration from college students of the master- 
pieces, literature not suited to their years or experience, but 
to lead them to read those books which a healthy, manly 
taste demands. 

Miner, L. B. — "Voluntary Reading in the English High School." 
School Review, 1905, 13 : 180. The"chief end" of pupils in the 
English high school is not college, but culture and self-support. 
The majority come from poor, illiterate homes and do much 
outside work. What is most needed is a public school Car- 
negie. A book in the hand is worth two in the stack. One 
of the best methods of arousing interest is to read one or two 
wily selections and then offer to loan the book. Having a 
recitation period for the reading club to talk over voluntary 
reading and give reports is satisfactory. 

New York Library Association. Committee on High School Li- 
braries. Report on the high school libraries of New York 
State. New York Libraries, Jan., 1910, 2 : 57-61. Sugges- 
tions to remedy the lack of co-operation between the public 
library and the school libraries. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 531 

Olsen, J. W. — "The School and the Library." Proceedings, 
N. E. A., 1907, 117. 

Outline of a scheme for co-operation between the high schools and 
public library of Brooklyn, N. Y. Library Journal, 34 : 146. 

Parlin, C. C. — "Successful High School Library at Wausau, Wis." 
School Review, 1907, 15 : 251-54. 

Sharp, K. L. — "Libraries in Secondary Schools." Library Journal, 
1895, 20 : c. 5-1 1. See especially pages 9-1 1. Contains also 
a tabulated statement as to library conditions in high schools 
in different States. 

Stearns, Lutie E. — "The Problem of the Girl." Library Journal, 
1906, 31 : c. 103. Contains suggestions for interesting girls 
in good literature and makes a plea for intermediate de- 
partments in libraries. 

"The Library in the School" (editorial), Dial, Feb. 1, 1906, 40 : 73. 
One of the best articles arguing for the necessity of a library 
in the high school as a working laboratory for the work of 
the entire school, but particularly for the English and history 
departments. 

Thurber, Samuel. — "Voluntary Reading of High School Students." 
School Review, 1905, 13 : 168-79. The prejudices of Eng- 
lish teachers, the simple and crude quality of pupils' read- 
ing, above all, the literature studied in class: these form 
the chasm between voluntary reading and classical high 
school English — a chasm that cannot be bridged till teachers 
of English take an interest in the pupils' reading instead of 
calling it "trash" and when the literature is not composed of 
books totally unsuited to the tastes of normal boys and girls. 
The ideal training for a teacher of English is to spend some 
time as an assistant in the children's department of a large 
public library. 

Ward, Gilbert O— "The High School Library." Paper read before 
Library Section, New York State Teachers' Association, 
Rochester, Dec, 1910. 

Wright, R. H. — "How to Make the Library Useful to High School 
Students." Public Libraries, 10 : 460-62. Also in Proceed- 
ings, N. E. A., 1905. An excellent article on the use of the 
library as a necessary department in the high school. 



APPENDIX 
ARTICULATION OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE 

REPORT ADOPTED BY THE SECONDARY DEPARTMENT OF THE 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

San Francisco, July ii, 191 i 

To the Secondary Department of the National Education 
Association. 

Your Committee upon the Articulation of High School and College 
herewith submits the following report: 

At the meeting of this department in Boston, July 6, 1910, reso- 
lutions were introduced requesting colleges to discontinue the en- 
trance requirement of two foreign languages and to recognize as 
electives all subjects well taught in the high school. These resolu- 
tions furthermore stated that the public high schools will be greatly 
hampered in their attempts to serve the best interests of boys and 
girls until such modification is made by the colleges. These resolu- 
tions were adopted with only one dissenting vote. In accordance 
with the spirit of these resolutions, your committee of nine was ap- 
pointed to prepare a rational statement of the work that the high 
school should do. To carry out this purpose, the committee submits: 

A. Some preliminary considerations on the field and function of 

education in the high school, 

B. A working definition of a well-planned high school course, and 

C. Reasons for the adoption of this definition as the basis of 

college admission. 

A. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE 

FIELD AND FUNCTION OF EDUCATION IN 

THE HIGH SCHOOL 

1. Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, in his Annual Report as President of 
the Carnegie Foundation, finds that American education, from ele- 
mentary school to college, is suffering from the attempt to teach too 
many subjects to the same student at the same time. He believes 

533 



534 APPENDIX 

that students taking the newer subjects should not be required to 
carry all the older subjects. He states emphatically that this is no 
argument against the enriched curriculum of the high school; but 
that, on the contrary, the high school must go on still further enrich- 
ing its curriculum, and that it is the duty of the college to adjust itself 
to the high school thus broadened. 

2. It is the duty of the tax -supported high school to give every 
student instruction carefully designed to return to society intelligent, 
able-bodied, and progressive citizens. To this end certain work 
should be included in the course of every student whether or not he 
contemplates entering a higher institution. The responsibility of 
the high school in this matter cannot be delegated to the college 
because there is no guarantee that the particular student will actu- 
ally go to college. 

3. It is coming to be recognized that in a democratic society the 
high school has a distinct function. The high school period is the 
testing time, the time for trying out different powers, the time for 
forming life purposes. Consequently, the opportunity should be 
provided for the student to test his capacity in a fairly large number 
of relatively diverse kinds of work. 

In the high school the boy or girl may very properly make a start 
along the line of his chosen vocation, but a final choice should not 
be forced upon him at the beginning of that career. If he makes a 
provisional choice early in the course, there should be ample oppor- 
tunity for readjustment later in the high school. For this reason the 
requirement of four years of work in any particular subject, as a 
condition of admission to a higher institution, unless that subject be 
one that may properly be required of all high school students, is 
illogical and should, in the judgment of this committee, be imme- 
diately discontinued. 

4. Not only is it the duty of the high school to lay the founda- 
tions of good citizenship and to help in the wise choice of a vocation, 
but it is equally important that the high school should make specific 
contribution to the efficiency of the individual along various broad 
lines. In our industrial democracy the development of individual 
aptitudes and unique gifts is quite as important as the development 
of the common elements of culture. Moreover, hard work is to be 
secured not by insistence upon uniformity of tastes and interests, but 
by the encouragement of special effort along lines that appeal to the 



APPENDIX 535 

individual. Our education would gain in power and in virility if we 
made more of the dominant interest that each boy and girl has at 
the time. It would seem that some have come to believe the oft- 
repeated statement that the liberal should precede the vocational, 
but an organic conception of education demands the early introduc- 
tion of training for individual usefulness, thereby blending the lib- 
eral and the vocational; for only then does the liberal receive its 
social significance and importance. In other words, the boy who 
pursues both the liberal and the vocational sees the relation of his 
own work to the work of others and to the welfare of society; whereas 
the liberal without the vocational leaves him a mere spectator in the 
theatre of life and the boxes in this theatre are already overcrowded. 

5. Mechanic arts, agriculture, or household science should be rec- 
ognized as rational elements in the education of all boys and girls, 
and especially of those who have not as yet chosen their vocation. 
Under the authority of the traditional conception of the best prep- 
aration for a higher institution, many of our public high schools are 
to-day responsible for leading tens of thousands of boys and girls 
away from the pursuits for which they are adapted and in which 
they are needed, to other pursuits for which they are not adapted 
and in which they are not needed. By means of exclusively book- 
ish curricula false ideals of culture are developed. A chasm is 
created between the producers of material wealth and the distribu- 
tors and consumers thereof. 

The high school should in a real sense reflect the major industries 
of the community which supports it. The high school, as the local 
educational institution, should reveal to boys and girls the higher 
possibilities for more efficient service along the lines in which their 
own community is industrially organized. 

Our traditional ideals of preparation for higher institutions are 
particularly incongruous with the actual needs and future responsi- 
bilities of girls. It would seem that such high school work as is 
carefully designed to develop capacity for and interest in the proper 
management and conduct of a home should be regarded as of im- 
portance at least equal to that of any other work. We do not under- 
stand how society can properly continue to sanction for girls high 
school curricula that disregard this fundamental need, even though 
such curricula are planned in response to the demand made by some 
of the colleges for women. 



536 APPENDIX 

B. A WORKING DEFINITION OF A WELL-PLANNED 
HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 

In view of the foregoing considerations on the field and function 
of the high school, and to secure courses that shall be sound as in- 
tegral parts of the larger educational process, your committee recom- 
mends the adoption of the following definition of a well-planned 
high school course: 

i. The quantitative requirement should be fifteen units. 

"A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary 
school, constituting approximately a quarter of a full year's work." 
This definition "assumes that the length of the school year is from 
thirty-six to forty weeks, that a period is from forty to sixty min- 
utes in length, and that the study is pursued for four or five periods 
per week." It further assumes that two hours of manual training 
or laboratory work is equivalent to one hour of class room work. 

We believe that fifteen units is a better requirement than sixteen 
units, because: 

(i) Quantity should be subordinated to quality. 

(2) Overstrain should be eliminated from the atmosphere of the 
school. 

(3) There should be one unit leeway, inasmuch as failure in one 
unit in one year should neither cost the student an extra year nor 
tempt the principal to permit such student to try to carry an extra 
unit the succeeding year. 

(4) Students of exceptional ability should be permitted to earn 
five units per year, thereby shortening the high school period by 
one year. 

(5) Students poor in ability should be required to spend five 
years upon the course, attempting and performing three units each 
year, thereby diminishing failures and reducing excessive per capita 
cost of instruction. 

Where fifteen units is adopted as the required number, it would 
seem reasonable that physical training and chorus singing should 
not be counted toward the fifteen units. 

We further recommend that the practice of admitting students to 
college weighed down with conditions be disapproved on the ground 
that it is injurious to the student, to the high school from which he 
comes, and to the college to which he goes. 



APPENDIX 537 

2. Every high school course should include at least 
three units of english, one unit of social science (includ- 
ing history), and one unit of natural science. 

(i) English. — There is at the present time almost unanimous 
agreement among high school and college authorities that three or 
four units of English should be required of all. But the high school 
should be granted freedom to adapt the work to the real needs of 
its boys and girls. A course that is good in one high school may 
not be suited to the needs of another high school. Uniformity in 
this subject is utterly disastrous. 

(2) Social Science (including history). — High school courses in 
history should always be taught so as to function in a better under- 
standing of modern institutions, current events, and present move- 
ments. 

Courses in economics should be encouraged. Economic discussions 
are paramount and ignorance of economic principles is appalling. 

Every high school student should be given a practical knowledge 
of affairs in his own community, political, industrial, and philan- 
thropic; of the basic principles of State and national politics; and 
of movements for social reform and international peace. 

Any high school course that secures part or all of the above re- 
sults should be given full recognition. 

(3) Natural Science. — Where a unit of introductory science is 
taught, it should be recognized as fulfilling the minimum requirement 
in natural science. 

In some schools an introductory course has been worked out 
based upon physics, with a minimum of principle and a maximum 
of application, as most advantageously meeting the needs of the 
pupils. In such a course there should be strict insistence upon ac- 
curacy and neatness in the presentation of note-books and laboratory 
exercises. Opportunity should be given for individual pupils to 
work along special lines, and to make contributions out of their 
studies to the work of the class as a whole. 

In other schools introductory science is based largely upon biology. 
General biological material is used to explain human functions. 
Personal hygiene, including sex hygiene, is taught. Special atten- 
tion is paid to problems of ventilation, sanitation, and the elimina- 
tion of preventable diseases. Effort is made to secure intelligent 
co-operation with health authorities and to form public opinion re- 



538 APPENDIX 

garding higher standards of health. A certain amount of physics 
and chemistry is also introduced in this course. 

Either of these introductory courses would be placed intention- 
ally in the first or second year of the high school. 

(4) Physical Training. — Systematic physical training, consisting 
of exercises and team games, should be required of all students; but 
this work should not be regarded as counting toward the fifteen 
required units. 

3. Every high school course should include the comple- 
tion OF TWO MAJORS OF THREE UNITS EACH AND ONE MINOR OF 
TWO UNITS, AND ONE OF THE MAJORS SHOULD BE ENGLISH. 

Irrespective of the possibility that the student may go to a higher 
institution, it is desirable for him to do in the high school a certain 
amount of work of an advanced character. This provision also 
makes it possible for a part of the work in college to be a continua- 
tion of work done in the high school, thereby preserving continuity 
in the educational process. 

We recommend that the following be recognized as majors: 

(a) 3 units of English. (Required of all.) 

(b) 3 units of one foreign language. (Latin, German, French, or 

Spanish.) 

(c) 3 units of mathematics. (To include elementary algebra and 

plane geometry, and selections from plane trigonometry, 
solid geometry, intermediate algebra, and advanced al- 
gebra.) 

(<2) 3 units of social science. (To include selections from history, 
civics, economics, municipal affairs, and history of in- 
dustry or commerce.) 

(e) 3 units of natural science. (To include selections from an in- 
troductory science course, physics, chemistry, astronomy, 
agriculture, physiography, elementary biology, advanced 
physiology, botany, and zoology.) 

4. THE REQUIREMENT IN MATHEMATICS AND IN FOREIGN LAN- 
GUAGES SHOULD NOT EXCEED TWO UNITS OF MATHEMATICS AND 
TWO UNITS OF ONE LANGUAGE OTHER THAN ENGLISH. 

For admission to engineering courses, the requirement of a major 
Jn mathematics appears reasonable. 



APPENDIX 539 

For admission to a distinctively literary or classical course, the 
requirement of a major in one foreign language appears reasonable. 

For other students a requirement of more than two units of math- 
ematics and two units of one language, when not in accord with the 
dominant interests and aptitudes of the student, appears excessive. 

5. Of the total fifteen units, not less than eleven units 
should consist of english, foreign language, mathematics, 
social science (including history), natural science, or 
other work conducted by recitations and home study. 

The other four units should be left as a margin to be 
used for additional academic work or for mechanic arts, 
household science, commercial work, and any other kind 
of work that the best interests of the student appear 
to require. 

No limitations should be imposed upon the use of the margin 
except that the instruction should be given by competent teachers 
with suitable equipment in classes not too large, and that the stu- 
dent's work should be of a satisfactory grade. 

The recommendation that the subjects from which the margin 
may be made up should be left entirely unspecified appears to be 
vital to the progressive development of secondary education. As 
long as formal recognition must be sought for each new subject, so 
long will the high school be subservient and not fully progressive. 
It ought to be possible for any strong high school at any time to 
introduce into its curriculum a subject that either meets the pecul- 
iar needs of the community or that appears to be the most appro- 
priate vehicle for teachers of pronounced individuality. 

This margin of four units is not excessive. It amounts to an aver- 
age of only one unit a year. A course containing eleven units of 
academic or prepared work requires the student to carry, practically 
throughout the course, three of these subjects at a time. In gen- 
eral, this involves the preparation of three lessons a day outside of 
the class room. A daily assignment of more than three lessons, to- 
gether with manual training or vocational work in school hours, is 
not conducive to a high standard of excellence. In many of our 
high schools, girls, especially, are subjected to a scholastic routine 
not designed to develop a strong race, either physically or mentally. 
(Note. -Placing the number of required units of academic or pre- 



540 APPENDIX 

pared work at eleven instead of twelve allows a leeway of one unit 
in case of a failure in the academic work. In case of no failure by 
taking four units each year the student may accomplish either an 
extra academic unit or an extra vocational unit.) 



The provisions of the foregoing definition may be summarized as 
follows: 

Nine specified units. 
3 units of English. 
2 units of one foreign language. 
2 units of mathematics, 
i unit of social science including history, 
i unit of natural science. 
Two additional academic units. 

One or both of these units must be advanced work to meet 
the requirement of a second major of three units. 
Four units left as a margin for whatever work best meets the 
needs of the individual. 

C. REASONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF THIS DEFINITION 
AS THE BASIS OF COLLEGE ADMISSION 

College admission should be based solely upon the completion of 
a well-planned high school course. The committee submits the fol- 
lowing argument in defense of this proposition: 

First: On the one hand, many students do not go to college be- 
cause they took those courses which were dictated by their aptitudes 
and needs instead of courses prescribed by the colleges. 

On the other hand, many students do not take the courses which 
they need because they think they may go to college. 

A committee of the Boston Head Masters' Association, in a report 
approved by that association last fall, stated the difficulty as follows: 
"It frequently happens that a pupil in the public high school does 
not discover that he is likely to go to college until one, two, or three 
years of the high school course have been completed. As matters 
stand now, many of the courses in which he has received instruction 
and in which he may have done excellent work are entirely useless 
to him in so far as he may apply them to the purposes of college admis- 
sion. The committee are of the opinion that this is decidedly wrong." 



APPENDIX 541 

The idea that the student should, early in his high school course, 
decide whether he is going to college ignores one of the chief func- 
tions of the high school; namely, that of inspiring capable students 
with the desire for further education. It is coming to be clearly rec- 
ognized that the chief characteristic of education in a democracy, as 
contrasted with that in a society dominated by class distinction, is 
the principle of the "open door." This principle of the "open door" 
is part of the great idea of the conservation of human gifts. It de- 
mands that personal worth should be recognized wherever found. 
The college is one of the many doors that should be kept open. 
The colleges themselves bear tribute to this principle in the innu- 
merable scholarships that they offer to boys and girls in humble cir- 
cumstances. In fact, it has long been recognized in this country 
that one boy who seeks a college education because of a strong 
inner purpose in the face of obstacles is worth to the college and to 
society a dozen boys who go to college merely because it is regarded 
as the proper thing to do. 

Second: The attempt that is often made to supplement the work 
now required by the colleges with such additional work as is re- 
quired by the community and by a more adequate understanding of 
the needs of real boys and girls, is highly unsatisfactory. May 7, 
1910, the High School Teachers Association of New York City 
issued a statement in which they affirmed: 

"We believe that the interests of the forty thousand boys and girls 
who annually attend the nineteen high schools of this city cannot be 
wisely and fully served under present college entrance requirements. 
Our experience seems to prove the existence of a wide discrepancy 
between 'preparation for life' and 'preparation for college' as de- 
fined by college entrance requirements. 

"The attempt to prepare the student for college under the pres- 
ent requirements and at the same time to teach him such other sub- 
jects as are needed for life is unsatisfactory. Under these condi- 
tions the student often has too much to do. The quality of all his 
work is likely to suffer. The additional subjects are slighted be- 
cause they do not count for admission to college. In such a course 
it is impossible for the student to give these subjects as much time 
and energy as social conditions demand." 

Third: Even by faithfully following the usual college prescription, 
the best preparation for college is not secured. Abraham Flexner, 



542 APPENDIX 

in his book "The American College," shows how the college is 
standing in its own way. He says that "The motive on which the 
college vainly relies, self-realization, has got to be rendered operative 
at the earlier stage." "As a matter of fact," he adds, "the second- 
ary period is far more favorable than the college to free exploration 
of the boy." The restrictive preparatory courses prescribed by the 
colleges do not afford the kind of experience needed in the high 
school. 

Fourth: In the attempt to prepare for the widely varying require- 
ments of different colleges the energies of the school are dissipated. 
The energy that should be devoted to meeting actual individual 
needs of students is expended upon the study of college catalogs. 
An institution that should be encouraged to develop internally is 
made subordinate and subservient. As an illustration of the confu- 
sion in the requirements of different colleges, we find that one col- 
lege requires one foreign language, counts work in a second, and 
gives no credit for a third; another college requires two foreign lan- 
guages, and requires one unit in a third, unless music or physics is 
presented as a substitute; and a third college absolutely requires 
three foreign languages. 

Fifth: But by far the most serious objection to the present condi- 
tion is, as Commissioner Snedden says, to be found in the restrictive 
effect upon true high school development. The high school to-day 
is the arena in which our greatest educational problems should be 
worked out. High school attendance in this country has increased 
almost fourfold within the last twenty years. If the college will 
recognize the true function of the high school this marvellous growth 
will continue unabated and the American high school will become 
an institution unparalleled as a factor for democratic living. It is 
doubtful whether any nation ever before possessed such an oppor- 
tunity. 



SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT 

The committee submits the following additional statement and 
recommendation : 

The universal education to which our institutions are now com- 
mitted is radically different from the education for a literary class to 
which we were formerly devoted. So long as our education was de- 



APPENDIX 543 

signed for the few it was possible to require candidates for that edu- 
cation to conform to a certain definite intellectual type, and to reject 
all other candidates. That type was defined in terms of Latin, 
Greek, and Mathematics — substitutes not allowed. This definition 
actually debarred many individuals who did not entirely conform to 
the type but who possessed other strong qualities that would have 
made them valuable members of the learned professions. Never- 
theless, the injustice of this procedure aroused no strong opposition 
because there were a sufficient number of other candidates conform- 
ing to the type to fill the very limited number of positions in the then 
existing professions. 

As soon as the advantages of a higher education made a strong 
appeal to a somewhat larger group of men and women, the rigor of 
the former requirement of Latin, Greek, and Mathematics was re- 
laxed by reducing the amounts required and by allowing a substitu- 
tion of modern language for part or all of the classical languages. 
This process was characterized by its opponents as "letting down the 
bars." Such it was, not so much in the sense that it made education 
easier, as in the sense that it permitted education to make its appeal 
to a much larger group of men and women. 

We believe that the time has arrived when it is the duty of those 
engaged in education to consider the importance of making our educa- 
tion appeal to still other students. To-day it is impossible in many 
communities for a boy or a girl to obtain even a high school educa- 
tion unless he or she can do passing work in both mathematics and a 
foreign language. Schoolmen in general are familiar with students, 
usually girls, who do good work in languages, history, and certain 
sciences, but who cannot master high school or college mathematics. 
There are other students, mostly boys, who do good work in mathe- 
matics, science and history, but who have exceptional difficulty with 
foreign languages. A student of the latter type would find ample 
field for the exercise of all his linguistic ability in a reasonable mas- 
tery of the English language. 

In the East we find a tendency to attach particular importance to 
the study of foreign languages, and in the West we find a tendency 
to emphasize mathematics. But native abilities are not geographi- 
cal quantities. 

We believe that insistence upon the study of mathematics and for- 
eign language as a sine qua non of an education is based largely upon 



544 



APPENDIX 



the belief that both are indispensable for intellectual discipline. But 
we know that many of our greatest men have been deficient in one 
or the other of these accomplishments. They evidently secured 
their intellectual power by other processes. The disciplinary possi- 
bilities of other subjects are not yet fully recognized. 

In view of the foregoing statement, we recommend that Section 4 
of the definition of a well-planned high school course, be supple- 
mented by the following additional statement: 

4 (a). In place of either two units of mathematics or two 

UNITS OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE, THE SUBSTITUTION UNDER PROPER 
SUPERVISION SHOULD BE ALLOWED OF TWO UNITS CONSISTING OF 
A SECOND UNIT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE (INCLUDING HISTORY) AND 
A SECOND UNIT OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 

In other words, there should be allowed under proper supervision 
the selection of four units from the following: 

(1) Two units of one foreign language. 

(2) Two units of mathematics. 

(3) Two units consisting of a second unit of social science and a 
second unit of natural science. 

According to this provision it would be possible under proper su- 
pervision to substitute the work in columns (B) or (C) for the work 
in column (A). 





(A) 


(B) 


(c) 


English 


3 
2 
2 

1 
1 

9 

1 or 2 


3 
2 

2 

2 

9 
1 


3 

2 
2 
2 

9 

1 


Foreign Language 


Mathematics 


Social Science ^ 


Natural Science 


Total specified 


To which must be added to make another 
major 


Total 


10 or 11 


10 


10 





APPENDIX 545 

Consequently the student without mathematics must present three 
units in two subjects and two units in the two remaining subjects, 
thereby demonstrating ability in four lines of work. 

Similarly, the student without foreign languages must present 
three units in two subjects and two units in the two remaining 
subjects. 

TO CARRY OUT THIS PLAN WE WOULD URGE THAT AT LEAST 
MANY OF THE LARGER COLLEGES SHOULD MAKE SPECIAL PROVI- 
SION TO CONTINUE THE EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF WHOM IT 
HAS BEEN DISCOVERED THAT THE REQUIREMENT OF MATHEMATICS 
OR THE REQUIREMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE IS AN OBSTACLE TO 
THE CONTINUATION OF THEIR EDUCATION. 

Respectfully submitted, 
Clarence D. Kingsley, Chairman, 

Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
William M. Butler, 

Principal, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo. 
Frank B. Dyer, 

Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Charles W. Evans, 

Principal, High School, East Orange, N. J. 
Charles H. Judd, 

Professor of Education, University of Chicago, 111. 
Alexis F. Lange, 

Dean of College Faculties, University of California, Cal. 
W. D. Lewis, 

Principal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa. 
William Orr, 

Deputy State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. 
William H. Smiley, 

Principal, East Side High School, Denver, Colo. 

Committee. 

The chairman herewith appends the following statement from 
Prof. Charles H. Judd, expressing the opinion that even greater 
latitude should be allowed to the high school and explaining an im- 
portant principle that should at this time be brought to the atten- 
tion of all concerned with the relations of school and college. 



546 APPENDIX 

My Dear Mr. Chairman: 

In signing the report, I am very glad indeed to express my sym- 
pathy with the general outlines of the whole statement which is here 
made by the committee. It is my opinion that somewhat greater 
latitude should be allowed the high school in the organization of its 
courses. To this end, I should personally prefer that the various 
requirements be not specific in terms of the subjects. The only 
specification which I find it possible to favor is that which requires 
a certain amount of coherent work in the high school. To this end, 
I believe that it would be wiser to require two majors of three units 
and one minor of two units. This is in keeping with the plan re- 
cently adopted by the University of Chicago. 

One other principle should, I believe, be incorporated in any 
report which deals with the relations of high schools and colleges. 
These two institutions should follow up the work of high school 
students much more completely than is now done. A student who 
comes from a high school into a college, should have his relative 
rank in the high school class reported to the college. The work he 
is carrying on in the college should be carefully observed, and re- 
ports should be sent back to the high school, stating the rank of the 
student in college. Both institutions would profit by this exchange 
of information. The college would learn by such a comparative 
study of the student's work whether or not its courses are articulat- 
ing directly with those of the high school. The high school would 
learn whether or not it is articulating with the college. It does not 
necessarily follow that the high school should in every case articu- 
late with the college in such a way as to insure the high standing of 
its students in college. 

Without attempting to pass on that question, however, the informa- 
tion that would be gained by the study of relative marks would be very 
valuable for the purpose of bringing to the consciousness of both in- 
stitutions the character of the work which the students are able to do. 

I should appreciate the opportunity of adding this comment to 
the report if you do not feel that it would encumber the committee's 
statement. In any case, I am prepared to sign the general report. 
These comments are merely added in the hope that the principles 
outlined in this report may be extended somewhat further than the 
committee has found it expedient to carry them. 

Charles H. Judd. 



INDEX 



Abstraction in English, 227. 

Academic departments, 72. 

Academies, 445. 

Academy, early American, 55, 62. 

Activities, appreciative, outdoor, pro- 
ductive, 436, 440. 

Adenoids, 353. 

Administration of high school, Introd., 
chaps. I, IV, and V. 

Administrative control of instruction, 
108, 113. 

Adolescence, characteristics of, 69, 
236; pedagogical implications re- 
specting, 70. 

Adolescents, value of psychology to, 
452, 453- 

Esthetic training, as aim of certain 
studies, 319, 328. 

Esthetics, credit for, 319, 320; in pub- 
lic speaking, 247 ; prejudice against 
study of, 321. 

Agricultural colleges, 386; training 
courses for teachers, 394. 

Agricultural high school, 422. 

Agriculture, 206; aims in high school, 
382; college entrance credit, 387; 
definition of, 381; number of high 
schools teaching, 385-387; relation 
to grade work, 385. 

Aims, of agriculture, 382; of Latin, 
258. 

Alabama, 386. 

Alcohol, relation to venereal disease, 
369, 379- 

Algebra, 131, 132, 137-140, 143, 144. 

Algorism, 129. 

Al-Khowarizmi, 129, 130. 

Allowances, 431, 437. 

Altruism, motive in English, 235. 

American high school, Introd., v. 

Analysis, structural, 234, 236. 

Angell, J. R., 444 (foot-note). 

Apparatus, physics, 168, 175. 

Applied science in secondary schools, 
214, 215. 

Appreciation courses, 325, 326, 327; 
credit for, 327, 329; plan for, 327; 
standards of. 326; value of, 326. 



Aristotle, 200. 

Arithmetic, 129-133, 137, 138, 140. 

Arkansas, 386. 

Art, appreciation of, 304, 315; educa- 
tional function of, 305 ; educational 
history of, 306; educational impor- 
tance of, 304; elementary school 
preparation in, 313; industrial values 
of, 306; preparation of teachers in, 
315- 

Art and morals, 229, 232. 

Assignments in English, 235, 237. 

Athletics and the sex problem, 379. 

Audience in English, 234, 236. 

Authority, 208. 

Automatism, 32. 

Babbitt, Irving, 35, 36. 

Bacteriology, 349, 358, 359. 

Bad English, 230-235. 

Benefits through English, 233, 236. 

Bergen, J. V., 202. 

Berzelius, laboratory of, 193. 

Bible, use of in the school, 334. 

Bibliographies, Introd., xii. 

Billings, J. S., 348. 

Biology, 198, 352, 357, 359. 

Biology courses, 206. 

Birge, Edward B., 327. 

Bishop, J. Remson, 401. 

Boards of education and control of 

instruction, 114. 
Boethius, 130. 
Boston, 354. 
Boston High School, first American 

High School, 445 (foot-note); of 

Commerce, 421; of Practical Arts, 

422. 
Botany rhetoric, 233. 
Boy-problem, 369. 
Briggs, Thomas H., 253. 
Brooks, Phillips, 339. 
Brown, E. E., 77, 445 (foot-note). 
Brown, M. R., 201. 
Budgets, 431, 432, 438. 
Bunker, F. T., 103. 
Burne-Jones, 462. 
Butler, N. M., 317, 320. 

547 



548 



INDEX 



Cabot, R. C, 348. 

California, 386. 

Carbolic acid, antidote for, 185. 

Carelessness, 209. 

Carnegie, Andrew, 400. 

Carnegie Foundation, 5, 32. 

Castiglione, 49. 

Chancellor, W. E., 125, 337. 

Character-building, 233. 

Charters, W. W., 444 (foot-note). 

Chastity, relation to health, 372. 

Cheating, 210. 

Chemistry, 352, 357; course, need for, 
in high schools, 183-186; place to 
be allotted to, 195, 196; time to be 
allotted to, 195, 196; direct useful- 
ness of, 185; educative value of, 
185, 186; influence of, on civiliza- 
tion, 184, 185; laboratory equip- 
ment, 192-194; laboratory work, 
suggestions as to, 194, 195; percent 
of students studying, 187; teacher, 
equipment of, 196, 197; teaching, 
difficulties of, 188-190; teaching, 
suggestions as to, 190-192; text- 
books, choosing of, 197; what is 
183, 184. 

Chicago Manual Training School, 411. 

Chicago, University of, separation of 
psychology from philosophy, 443. 

Choosing a color scheme, 433, 439. 

Chorus work, 318, 319; aesthetic value 
of, 323; as social function of school, 
324; credit for, 325; plan for, 324; 
practice hours for, 324, 325. 

Cincinnati, University of, and indus- 
trial education, 419. 

Civics, in connection with public 
speaking, 246. 

Civil government, teaching of, 299, 
300. 

Clapp, John M., 253. 

Class hour in English, 235, 237. 

Class teachers and supervisors, 124. 

Classical literature, 48, 55, 56. 

Cleveland, Grover, 403. 

Cleveland Technical High School, 421. 

Clubs, musical, credit for, 330; value 
of, 329. 

Coe, G. A., 335. 

Coeducation and instruction, 126. 

College domination, 201, 208. 

College Entrance Board, 143; defini- 
tion of physics unit, 159. 

College, entrance credit for agricult- 
ure, 387 ; entrance credit for music, 
329; entrance requirements, in. 



College, French, 60. 

Colleges and instruction, 115. 

Commercial course, the, 410. 

Commercial education, additional 
courses, 401; aims of, 397; a prac- 
tical illustration, 398; better pre- 
liminary preparation, 406; growth 
of, 396; obstacles to, 407; subjects 
in, 400; success of, 399; undeveloped 
condition of, 397. 

Commercial English, 230. 

Committee of Five, report of, 293, 
294. 

Committee of Nine, report of, 400. 

Committee of Seven, report of, 292, 
293- 

Committee of Ten, 73, 227; report of, 
292. 

Committee of Twelve, report on mod- 
ern language teaching, 285. 

Composition, 329; English, 228-234; 
Latin, 272. 

Concepts, ultimate, in physics, 148. 

Concrete geometry, 136, 140. 

Conduct, 434, 439. 

Conferences on English, 231. 

Consequences, fear of, 376. 

Consolidated school, 101. 

Consultation hour, 235. 

Consultative committee, 88. 

Contributors, Introd., vi. 

Control of instruction, external, 107; 
internal, 117. 

Controversy, formal discipline, 36. 

Cooley, C. H., 337. 

Co-operation, of high school and col- 
lege, 4, 5; of teachers, 235. 

Co-operative industrial education, 4 ig. 

Correctness in English, 230-233. 

Correlation, of agriculture and science, 
391, 392; between subjects, 205. 

Corson, Hiram, on literary apprecia- 
tion, 247. 

Coulter, J. M., 198, 202. 

Course of study, high school, 99; 
Latin, 266; making of, 125; mean- 
ing of, III. 

Courses, in agriculture (one year, 389; 
two to four year, 390; component 
parts, 390, 391); in English classics, 
242; in English composition, 240; 
in modern languages, 285. 

Courtesies and customs of the table, 
434. 440. 

Crampton, W., 354, 355. 

Credits, 328. 

Criticism in English, 236. 



INDEX 



549 



Criticisms of definitions of the physics 
unit, 1 68, 170. 

Crosby, C, 350, 351. 

Cultural studies, agriculture, 383, 384. 

Curriculum, agriculture in the, 38g, 
390; bases of, 25-27; experiments 
with, 1, g, 23; for six year high 
school, 95 ; making of, 125; mean- 
ing of, in; problems, 23, 24; pub- 
lic interest in, i, 2, 11, 15, 26, 27. 

Davidson, Thos., 7, 36. 

Davis, B. M., 202. 

Dawson, J., 204. 

Debates, high school, 250; statistics 
concerning, 254. 

Definitions of the physics unit, 152, 
156, 159- 

De Garmo, Chas., 22, 397. 

Democratic spirit in English, 226. 

Departmental teaching, advantages, 
89, 90; in seventh and eighth grades, 
89 ff., 100. 

Deportment, in classes studying liter- 
ature, 248. 

Descartes, 144. 

Design, aims, 310; courses in, 313; 
elementary school preparation for, 
314; industrial demand for, 306; 
natural demand for, 305. 

Development of the physics course, 
history of, 150; future of, 180. 

Dewey, John, 14, 33, 75, 76, 115, 126, 
341, 442, 444 (foot-note), 458 (foot- 
note). 

Differentiation of instruction, 93, 96. 

Diophantus, 130. 

Disciplinary value, of agriculture, 384; 
of Latin, 259. 

Discipline, formal, chap. II. 

Disease, venereal, 364, 368, 376, 377, 
378, 379; crusades against, 364, 368. 

Domestic art, 428, 429, 437. 

Domestic science, 428, 429, 438. 

Downing, Dr., 460. 

Dramatic clubs, 238, 251. 

Draper, A. S., 102. 

Drawing, free-hand, courses in, 311; 
elementary school preparation for, 
313; value in design, 309; in indus- 
tries, 309; in pictorial effects, 310; 
in science, 308. 

Economy, principle of, in science, 147. 
"Education and Life," 214. 
Education, meaning of, 106; voca- 
tional, 409. 



Educational value of physiography, 
218, 219; Professor Davis quoted, 
219. 

Efficiency, social, 226, 233. 

Egypt, 129. 

Elementary education, aim of, 76; defi- 
nition of, 75. 

Elementary school course, aim of, 75, 
76; criticisms of , 73 ; departmental 
teaching in, 89 ff.; early character- 
istics of, 68; promotion by subjects 
in, 92, 101; secondary subjects in, 
93; six -year course, 73, 75, 79, 103, 

Elementary science, 389. 

Elementary vocational training, 415. 

Eleutheromania, 35. 

Emissions, physiology of, 371. 

Emotions, training of, in public speak- 
ing, 248. 

English, aims in teaching, 226, 233; 
principle of method in, 227; pur- 
pose of studying, 227, 237; ideals in 
studying, 230; preparation for teach- 
ing, 239; motives for studying, 235; 
scheme of work in, 240; vocational 
demands on, 231, 239. 

English classics, course in, 240-242; 
home reading in, 236; methods of 
teaching, 236; motives for studying, 
236; oral interpretation of, 237; 
text-books, 236; class hour in, 237. 

English composition, oral, 235; class 
hour in, 235; text-books in, 233; 
methods of teaching, 235; ideals in, 
230; publication in, 234, 236, 238; 
paragraph method in, 233; choice 
of topics for, 234, 239; theme read- 
ing, 235. 

English helped by Latin, 260. 

English secondary education, 59. 

Entrance requirements, in, 188, 230, 
266, 329, 387. 

Equipment, for instruction, 120; of 
the physics laboratory, 168, 172, 

175- 
Ethics in adolescent education, 340, 

34 1 - 

Euclid, 131. 

Exhibits and appliances, office, 405. 

Experiments, in psychology, 457; 

with curriculum, 1, 9, 23. 
External control of instruction, 107. 
Eyesight, 352. 

Faunce, Pres. William H. P., 402. 
Field, Marshall, 400. 
Findlay, J. J., 20. 



550 



INDEX 



Fine Arts, 428, 429, 439. 

Fitchburg plan of industrial education, 
419. 

Floors and floor coverings, 433, 439. 

Folk and aesthetic dancing, value of, 
319. 

Foreign influence of English, 230, 
231. 

Foreign school systems, 68, 69, 79. 

Form in English, 231. 

Formal discipline, chap. II. 

Fraternity, high school, 379. 

French, high school course in, by years, 
287. 

French or German ? 284. 

French secondary education, 60. 

Froebel, 442. 

Function, functional point of view in 
psychology, 458. 

Function of physiography, 215, 216. 

Function, reproductive, 361, 370; at- 
titude of society toward, 361. 

Fundamental concepts in physics, 148. 

Furniture, 433, 439. 

Gaillard, Edwin White, 461. 

Galileo, 167, 168. 

Geographical laboratories, 217, 218; 

necessary apparatus, 218. 
Geometry, 129-133, 136, 137-140, 144, 

145- 
Georgia, 386. 

Gerhard of Cremona, 130. 
German, high school course in, by 

years, 286. 
German influence on English, 230, 231. 
German secondary education, 59. 
Germ-carriers and venereal disease, 

363- 

Gonorrhoea, 363, 377, 378. 

Gouin, a worker in the psychological 
method of teaching modern lan- 
guages, 280. 

Graduate course, Harvard University, 
400. 

Grammar, English, 228. 

Grammar method of teaching modern 
languages, 278. 

Graphs in mathematics, 135, 136. 

Greek mathematics, 129, 130. 

Gulick, L. H., 350. 

Gymnasium, 50, 52, 58. 

Habit, Rowe on, 33; Sidis on, 34, 35; 
William James on, 36, 37; Thos. 
Davidson on, 37; and the teacher, 
40-44. 



Hadley, William A., 404. 

Halliday, E. M., on oral English com- 
mittee, 253. 

Hamilton, James, early teacher by in- 
ductive method, 278. 

Hanus, P. H., 76. 

Harmony, 329. 

Harvard College, chemistry credited 
for admission, 188; requirement in 
English, 230. 

Health, 434, 440. 

Hearing, 353. 

Heath, H., 202. 

Henderson, E. N., 340, 444. 

Heness, Gottlieb, a founder of the 
natural method, 279. 

Herbart, 442. 

High school, aim and function, 76, 77; 
building, 88; courses of study, 99; 
curriculum, 78; early character of, 
72; "Junior," 86, 87, 103; organi- 
zation of, 75 ; origin of, 63; relation 
of, to college, 65; rural, 101; school 
days, 98; "Senior," 86, 87; sex 
problem in, 368. 

High school course of study (pro- 
gramme of studies); aim, 76, 77; 
early character of, 72; differentia- 
tion in, 79-81; reorganization of, 
80; six-year course (curriculum), 73. 

High school course in German, by 
years, 286; courses in modern lan- 
guages, results to be attained, 287; 
music teaching, how to improve it, 
320, 321. 

High school organization, contem- 
porary defects in, 71, 74; origin of 
the system, 71; six-year high school, 

75, 79- 

High schools, agricultural, 386; free, 
63; types of, 65. 

Higher institutions, control of instruc- 
tion, 115. 

History, aids in teaching, 2g8, 2gg; 
high school courses in, 293, 294; 
methods of teaching, 295, 298; prep- 
aration of teacher of, 301-303; 
qualifications of teacher of, 301; 
recognition of the values of, 291-295 ; 
values of the study of, 288-291. 

History, of biology, 200; of the high 
school course in physics, 150; of 
physics development, 166. 

Home, decline of, 334; location and 
structure, 432, 437, 438; home nurs- 
ing, 432, 433, 438; home study, 98. 

Home, H. H., 341, 444 (foot-note). 



INDEX 



551 



Horner, 144. 

Hunt, Mrs. Mary H., 347. 
Hunter, G. W., 202, 204, 351. 
Hygiene in the college, 356. 

Idaho, 386. 

Ideals in English, 226, 230, 233, 240. 

Illustrative material in teaching mod- 
ern languages, 281. 

Imagination in English, 22g. 

Incentives to learn English, 235, 236. 

Indianapolis, 327. 

Indianapolis Manual Training High 
School, 420. 

Inductive method of teaching modern 
languages, 278. 

Industrial courses, 81. 

Industrial education, 9, 10. 

Instruction, administrative control of, 
109, 113; college control of, 115; 
external control of, 107; identity 
vs. equality, 126; inspectorial con- 
trol of, no, 115; legislative control 
of, 108, 113; organization and con- 
trol of, 106; plans of, 112; State 
control of, 116; supervisory control 
of, 109, 115. 

Interest, elements of, in physics, 146. 

Inter-relations of sciences, 213. 

Introductory and correlative functions 
of physiography, 219, 220. 

Iowa, 350. 

Issues, educational, 12, 13. 

Jacotot, early teacher of French by 

inductive method, 278. 
James, William, 33, 36, 43, 452. 
Jastrow, Joseph, 33. 
John of Halifax, 129. 
Jordan, D. S., 202. 
Judd, C. H, 444 (foot-note). 
Junior high school, 86, 87, 103. 

Kellogg, V. L., 202. 
Kelly, H. A., 202. 

Kinds of educational institutions, 7-10. 
Knowledge and conduct, 341, 342. 
Knowledge of earth science a neces- 
sity, 216. 

Laboratory work, 207, 210; in phys- 
ics, 151, 164, 1 68, 172; mathemat- 
ics, 135. 

Lange, A. F., 28. 

Language study should begin early, 
277, 283. 

Larned, J. N., 342. 



Latin, 205, 257; aims of, 258; au- 
thors read, 269; composition, 272; 
courses of study, 266; grammar, 273; 
number of pupils in, 257; teachers, 
275- 

Latin or German? 284. 

Leddike, F., 77. 

Legislation, agriculture, 381, 386. 

Legislative control of instruction, 108, 
113- 

Leisure time, the use of the, 435, 436, 
440. 

Letter-writing, 231. 

Liberal education, 46. 

Librarian, assistance for, 463; duties 
of, 463. 

Library, courses, 466; purposes of, 
464; questions, 466, 467; teaching 
the use of, 464, 465. 

Library instruction, 465; value of, 
469. 

Liebig, first laboratory for student in- 
struction, 187. 

Linville, H. R., 202, 203, 206. 

Literary societies, 249, 254. 

Literature, 428, 429, 440; English (see 
English Classics) ; oral interpretation 
of, 247; true test in reading, 247. 

Locke, 57. 

Louisiana, 386. 

Lycee, French, 60. 

Mach, Ernst, 147, 148, 168. 

Mac Vannel, J. A., in. 

Maine, 386. 

Mal-nutrition, 353. 

Mann, C. R., 170. 

Manners, the significance of, 434, 440. 

Massachusetts, 351, 353, 386. 

Massachusetts law regarding voca- 
tional education, 415. 

Masturbation, 372, 378. 

Mathematics, 205; beauty, 132; 
blackboard work, 141; correlation, 
i34» 137-14°; history of, 1 28-131; 
laboratory methods, 135; oral work, 
138, 139; practical, 132, 134; sym- 
metry, 132; teachers, 142, 143; use 
of, in the physics course, 169; writ- 
ten work, 141. 

Maxwell, W. H., 354. 

McAndrew, Principal, 467. 

McDonald, Wm., 25. 

McKinley, William, 403. 

McMurry, Frank, 444 (foot-note). 

Mead, G. H., 195. 

Mechanical players, 327. 



552 



INDEX 



Mediaeval secondary education, 47. 

Medical inspection, 352, 353, 354. 

Menomonie (Wis.) High School, 416. 

Menstruation, 371. 

Mero, E. B., 353. 

Merriam, J. L., 21. 

Metnod in physiography, a better, 
221, 222; basis of method, 222. 

Methodology of English, 227. 

Methods, in psychology, 455. 

Meumann, E., 43. 

Meylan, G. L., 356, 358. 

Michigan, 386; State Library Com- 
mission, 468. 

Minnesota, 386. 

Mississippi, 386. 

Missouri, 387. 

Model dining-room, 434. 

Model schools, 20. 

Modern language study, beginnings of, 
278. 

Modern languages, as substitute for 
ancient in American college require- 
ments, 270; displace ancient in cer- 
tain Prussian schools, 279. 

Mohammedans, 129. 

Moral culture, need of, in the schools, 
332. 

Moral education, 19-21; in connec- 
tion with public speaking, 246. 

Moral element in education, neglect of, 

333- 
Moral instruction, methods of, 337- 
342; programme of study in, 342- 

345- 

Moral training, importance of, in mod- 
ern life, 332. 

Moral value of physics study, 149. 

Motives in English, 235. 

Mozier, W. F., 253. 

Munich, 9. 

Museum work, 206. 

Music, 428, 440; and literature, 237; 
the art of our times, 325; the most 
social of arts, 325. 

Music courses, as generally classified, 
317; new classification, 318. 

Narcotics and stimulants, 348, 349. 
National Education Association, 73, 

79. 143. 388 (foot-note); committees 

of, 73, 227, 285, 292, 293, 294, 400. 
Natural method of teaching modern 

languages, 279. 
Nature study, relation to agriculture, 

382, 385. 
Nebraska, 386, 387. 



Nervous prostration, induced by dra- 
matic presentations, 252. 

New England Association, 231. 

New Jersey, 386, 387. 

New method in physiography, 214. 

New York, 386; law regarding voca- 
tional education, 416; State Edu- 
cation Department, 143; State of, 
psychology in academies, 44s ; State 
Science Teachers' Association, 349. 

New York City, 352, 354. 

Nichols, Edw. L., 182. 

Nichols, Ernest F., 148. 

Night-dreams, significance of, 371. 

North Central Association, definition 
of physics unit, 156. 

Notation, knowledge of, 323. 

Ober-Realschulen, 58. 

Observation in English, 227, 228. 

Obstacles to teaching, 208. 

Ohio, 387. 

Oklahoma, 386. 

Oral English, 235, 237; resolutions of 
Illinois teachers of English concern- 
ing, 253. 

Oral interpretation of literature, 247. 

Oratorical contests, 251. 

Oratorio choruses, effect on voice, 324; 
value of, as experience after school, 
324- 

Oregon Library Commission, 468. 

Osborn, Henry, 33. 

O'Shea, M. V., 444. 

Outlining in English, 235. 

Palmer, G. H., 337. 

Paragraph method in English, 233. 

Parker, Bertrand DeR., 400. 

Parker, Colonel, 442. 

Pathology, venereal, 376, 377. 

Patriotism, taught in public speaking, 
246. 

Pedagogical value of physics, 149, 165. 

Pedagogies, multiplicity of, Introd., 
vi, vii; specialized, Introd., x, xi. 

Pennsylvania, 386. 

"People's College," 96. 

Pestalozzi, 200, 442. 

Phillips Exeter Academy, 445. 

Phonetic method of language teaching, 
280. 

Physical development, incentives to, 
in public speaking, 247. 

Physical education, present day inter- 
est in, 346; revival of interest in, 
353- 



INDEX 



553 



Physics, 146, 352, 357. 

Physiographic texts, changes in, 216, 
217. 

Physiography, defined, 212; distinc- 
tion between physical geography 
and, 220; explanation of earth 
phenomena, 212, 213; explains phe- 
nomena, 215; fundamental science, 
213; in curriculum, 219; its relation 
to general geography, 212; justifica- 
tion as pure or applied science, 218, 
219; not duly appreciated, reason, 
221; promise of future, 225. 

Physiology, 206; and hygiene, 346; in 
the grades, 347; in the high school 
curriculum, 347; nature of the 
course, 357; reasons for failure, 348; 
status in the high school, 350. 

Pictures and casts, 433, 439. 

Place of physics in high school curric- 
ulum, 180. 

Plato, 37, 39, 128. 

Playground, 353, 354, 359. 

Plexus of evils, 74. 

Poetry, reading of, 247, 248. 

Political economy, teaching of, 300, 301 . 

Poor teaching, 209. 

Practical applications of physics, 144. 

Practical arts, pupils, the central idea, 
429; by whom taught, 430. 

Practical courses, 428. 

Practical value of geographical knowl- 
edge, 216. 

Preparation, for teaching English, 239; 
of Latin teachers, 275; of the teacher 
of modern foreign languages, 282; 
pupils', 124; teachers', 118. 

Principals and instruction, 117. 

Pritchett, H. S., 5. 

Private study, utilization and recogni- 
tion of, 330. 

Programme of studies, 2, 4; meaning 
of, III. 

Promotions, 92, 101. 

Prostitution, 364, 378. 

Psychology in high school curriculum, 
441; (for general topics see also 
table of contents, chap. XXV). 

Puberty, significance of, 369, 375. 

Public criticism, 10, 15, 16. 

Public speaking, improvement in in- 
struction in, 249; lack of text-books 
on, 249; occasions for, 250; place 
in training for the professions, 245; 
practical value of, 245; social value 
of, 246; teachers of, 244, 254, 255; 
when to be taught, 245. 



Public support, 11, 12. 
Publication in English, 234, 236, 238. 
Pupils, preparation, 124; tests of at- 
tainment, 126. 
Pythagorean proposition, 139. 

Quacks, warning against, 378. 
Questions in English, 237. 
Quintilian, 46, 51. 



Reading, 227, 242; of poetry, 248. 

Reading method of teaching languages, 
278. 

Real-Gymnasien, 58. 

" Realien " in language teaching, 279. 

Realschulen, 55, 57; modern lan- 
guages in, 279. 

Recreation and enjoyment, 435, 440. 

Reform method of teaching modern 
languages, 280. 

Reformation, reaction from, 54, 55. 

Regiomontanus, 130. 

Religion and morality, relationship 
between, 335. 

Renaissance, 45; secondary education, 
49. 

Reporting, topical, 237. 

Reproduction, function of, 361, 371. 

Requirements in English, 231. 

Rhetoric as adaptation, 232. 

Rhetoricals, 230, 249. 

Richards, Mrs. Ellen H., "Cost of Liv- 
ing," 431. 

Ritter-Akademien, 55. 

Robert of Chester, 130. 

Roman mathematics, 129, 130; sec- 
ondary education, 46. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 403. 

Round Table, 238. 

Rousseau, influence on secondary edu- 
cation, 57. 

Rowe, S. H., 33. 

Royce, J., 40. 

Ruediger, W. C, 444. 

Rural high school, 101. 

Rural school teachers, psychology in 
their training, 447-449. 

Sacrobosco, see John of Halifax. 
Sadler, M. E., 14, 336, 338. 
Salisbury, 221. 

Sanitation, 349, 357, 358, 359. 
Sauveur, Lambert, a founder of the 

natural method, 280. 
Scheme of treatment, Introd., viii. 



554 



INDEX 



School parties, 435, 440. 

School, responsibility of, for moral 
training, 336, 337; a socializing 
agency, 336, 339.. 34°- 

Schoolmen, opposition of, 396. 

Science, elementary, introductory, 389 
390. 

Scientific character of physiography, 
213, 214. 

Seashore, C. E., 457. 

Secondary curriculum: Academy, 
American of nineteenth century, 63 ; 
academy, early American, 55, 56; 
English public school, 60; French 
lycee, 61; German, 59; Greek, 46; 
high school, 64; mediaeval, 47; 
Renaissance, 49; Roman, 46; sev- 
enteenth century, 53, 54; sixteenth 
century, 50, 51. 

Secondary education, meaning of, 76, 
77, 78. 

Self-abuse, 372, 378. 

Self-correction, 235. 

"Senior high school," 86, 87. 

Sequence in science courses, 204. 

Seven liberal arts, 47. 

Seventh and eighth grades, reorganiza- 
tion, 74, 75 ; methods of organizing, 
82, 83; curriculum in, 97. 

Sex pedagogy, 361; constructive, 370; 
preventive, 375; primary, 375. 

Sex problem, the, 361; Church and 
the, 362, 365; Germany and the, 
367; medicine and the, 362, 363, 
364; methods of attacking, 368; 
parents and the, 361, 365, 367; 
schools and the, 365, 367, 368, 374, 
377; society and the, 361, 362; soci- 
ologic aspects of, 378, 380; teachers 
and the, 366, 370, 377; university 
and the, 365, 367, 368, 377. 

Sex relationship, normal, 370, 372, 
374> 380. 

Sheppard, James J., 400. 

Shopping, the ethics of, 431, 437. 

Sidis, Boris, 34, 35. 

Sight-singing, Jfor discipline, 325. 

Sight translation, in Latin, 268. 

Six-year high school, agitations for, 
69. 73! advantages of, 100, 102; 
administration of, 82 ff.; aims of, 
79; courses of study in, 99; curric- 
ulum of, 95 ; departmental teach- 
ing in, 89 ff., 100; differentiation in, 
80 ff. (of schools, 82, 97, 101; of 
courses, 80, 81; of class sections, 
85, 97; of methods, 96); equip- 



ment of, 88; flexibility in, 80; 
guiding principles respecting, 94; 
number of schools, 79 (note) ; organ- 
ization of, 82 ff.; subdivisions of, 86. 

Slavery, white, 361, 378. 

Snedden, David, 15. 

Social efficiency, 226, 233. 

Social phase of geographical knowl- 
edge, 216. 

Social relations, 434, 440. 

Socrates, 37, 38. 

Spanish or German? 284. 

Special teacher of public speaking, 253. 

Specific disciplines, 234. 

Spelling, 228. 

Spencer, H., 37, 40, 347. 

Springfield, Mass., high school science 
course, 188. 

Standards of musical preparation, 
322, 323. 

State aid, for agriculture, 386. 

State and vocational education, 414. 

State school system, 115. 

Stenography, commercial stand-point, 
402; educational stand-point, 403; 
importance of, 402. 

Sterility, cause of, 363, 378. 

St. Louis, 354. 

Sturm, 50, 144. 

Subject-matter, aims of, no. 

Summary of geographical characters, 
215. 

Superintendents and instruction, 117. 

Supervised athletics, 98. 

Supervised study, 98. 

Supervisors and class teachers, 124. 

Supervisory control of instruction, 
109, 115, 121. 

Supervisory power, tests of, 122. 

Syllabus, a, 437-440. 

Syphilis, 363, 377, 378. 

Teacher training courses, 411. 

Teachers, of agriculture, 394; of 
English, 236, 238, 239; of Latin, 
275; of physics, 181; of physiog- 
raphy, 224, 225; of physiology and 
hygiene, 350; of public speaking 
(lack of, 244; resolutions of Illinois 
Teachers of English concerning, 254; 
preparation of, 255); influence of, 
333.339; qualifications of, 118; se- 
lection of, 119; temperament and 
training of, 330; for music teaching, 
training of, 209. 

Teaching staff of school to aid stu- 
dents, 327. 



INDEX 



555 



Technical arts high schools, 420. 

Technical schools of agriculture, 386. 

Teeth, 352. 

Tests, pupils' attainment, 126; super- 
visory power, 122. 

Texas, 386. 

Textiles, 431, 437. 

Texts, agricultural, 3g2; commercial, 
404; free, 121; for modern lan- 
guage teaching, 280; in English, 
233, 236; in psychology, 454, 456; 
selection of, 120; old and new con- 
trasted, 217. 

Theme reading, 235. 

Themes, musical, 320, 327. 

Theoretical value of earth science, 220, 
221. 

Thompson, F. D., 253. 

Time for teaching, 205. 

Tone thinking, 323. 

Topical reports in English, 237. 

Training of teachers, 209; of physics 
teachers, 181. 

Transfer of training, 37-44. 

Transportation of pupils, 101. 

Trigonometry, 130, 137, 140, 141, 145. 

Trueblood, Thos. C, 250. 

Tufts, J. H., 341. 

Types of high school pupils, 79. 

Ultimate concepts in physics, 148. 
Unison singing, value of, 324. 
Unit, of agriculture, 388; of physics, 
152, 156, 159. 

Value, of biology, 19S; of Latin, 258; 

pedagogical, of physics, 149, 165; 

practical and moral, of physics, 149. 
Varicocele, 379. 
Variety in English work, 234. 
Vice, effects of sexual, 363, 364, 376, 

378. 



Vie'tor, founder of reform method, 280. 

Virginia, 353, 386. 

Virtue, positive, 376. 

Vittorino da Feltre, 49, 51. 

Vocational courses, 82. 

Vocational demands on English, 226, 

231, 239. 
Vocational guidance, 425. 
Vocational training, 409. 
Voice training, 248 

Walls, treatment of, 433, 439. 

Walter, H. E., 206; Max, 279. 

Wanamaker, John, 400. 

Wardrobe, the, 431, 437. 

Washington Irving High School, 422. 

Washington University Manual Train- 
ing School, 411. 

What to avoid, 433, 439. 

Whitney, W., 205. 

Will, the training of, in public speak- 
ing, 248. 

Wilson, E. B., 198. 

Wisconsin, 386. 

Wisconsin law regarding vocational 
education, 416. 

Witmer, 457. 

Wohler, visit of, to Berzelius, 193. 

Woman's Christian Temperance Un- 
ion, 347, 348. 

Wood, T. D., 349. 

Worcester Trade School, 416. 

Work, social, opportunities for, 435, 
440. 

Wundt and 6rst psychological labora- 
tory, 443. 

Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion, 353. 

Zoology courses, 206. 



Text-Books for Teachers 

Normal and Training Schools 

published by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
153-157 Fifth Avenue, New York 

HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION 

Edited by Prof. C. E. JOHNSTON 

Dean of the School of Education, University of Kansas -tomn St co 

The most recent authoritative work on High School 
Education, representing the views of twenty-five leading 
educators. The book covers thoroughly the whole field of 
High School Education. Each chapter is devoted to one 
of the principal subjects and is written by a recognized 
authority. 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

By SAMUEL F. DUTTON 

Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 12 tno $i oo 

A concise and definite statement of the problems of 
school management, giving helpful suggestions for their 
solution. Adopted by Teachers' Reading Circles of Michi- 
gan, Indiana, Virginia, Alabama, and Georgia. 

SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

By R. G. BOONE 

University of California i 2 mo,$l.oo 

Written from the point of view of recent psychology 
and philosophy, giving throughout the discussion the evolu- 
tionary interpretation to the educational process. 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

By THOMAS DAVIDSON X2mo> $ IOO 

It has been said by an eminent critic that this book 
"exhibits a higher degree of scholarship than any other 
history of education in popular use." 



Text-Books for Teachers 

Normal and Training Schools 



MIND IN THE MAKING 

By Edgar James Swift 

Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. I2TH0, $1.50 

From a wide study of biography, experience, and special 
investigation, the author shows convincingly that the so- 
called dulness and idleness of children are, in most cases, due 
to a failure to understand them. 

GERMAN EDUCATION— Past and Present 
By Friedrich Paulsen 

Professor of Philosophy in Berlin University I2PW $1.25 

In this volume of 310 pages, Professor Paulsen gives a 
concise yet comprehensive history of education in Germany, 
from ancient to modern times, writing especially for the 
teacher. 

PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS 

By C. LLOYD MORGAN 

Principal of University College, Bristol, England I2JW0 $1.25 

A systematic presentation of the principles of psychology 
useful to all teachers. The new edition of this book has 
been completely revised and rewritten. 

ELEMENTARY LOGIC 

By William J. Taylor 

Brooklyn Training School for Teachers I27M0 $1.25 

The book gives special attention to the bearings of logic 
upon the problems of education. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK 



Text-Books for Teachers 

Normal and Training Schools 
THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL 

By CHAUNCEY P. COLGROVE 

Head of the Department of Professional Instruction in the Iowa State 

Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa a 

I27WO, $1.25 

One of the most serviceable and inspiring books for 
teachers ever published. Adopted officially by State Read- 
ing Circles or officially prescribed for teachers' reading by 
the State Departments of fifteen states. It discusses every 
aspect of the teacher's work. The Journal of Education says : 
"No more helpful book for teachers' reading circles has 
appeared and no more complete book for classes in normal 
schools. Our examination of the book has been thorough and 
careful and we have no reservation in our commendation." 

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 

By Frederick Elmer Bolton 

Director of the School of Education in the State University of Iowa 

8vo, $3.00 

"Principles of Education" does what no other single 
book has yet done; namely, assemble the main, well-tested 
results of the scientific study of education from the psycho- 
logical and biological view-points and present them in a way 
that secures continuity, correlation, and a unified interpre- 
tation. The author has done his work so skilfully that the 
book is not only scientifically accurate but distinctly read- 
able and entertaining. For classes in the study of educa- 
tion in normal schools and colleges, for use in teachers' 
reading circles, and for the private library of every super- 
intendent and teacher, it is an invaluable book. It is a 
masterly treatise in a most important field. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK 



Dt Great Educators nkM$ ed imrra9 w& 

" Just In the right time to meet the needs of a large number of teachers who 
are casting about to find something fundamental and satisfying on the theory ox 
education.'' — Hon. W. T. Harris, u. S. Commissioner of Education. 



HORACE MANN and Public Education in the United States. By 
B. A. Hinsdale, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of the Art and Science of 
Teaching in the University of Michigan. l2mo. $1.00 net. 

THOMAS and MATTHEW ARNOLD and their Influence on Eng- 
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ARISTOTLE and the Ancient Educational Ideals. By Thomas 
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ALCUIN and the Rise of the Christian Schools. By Professor An. 
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ABELARD and the Origin and Early History of Universities. By 
Jules Gabriel Compavre, Rector of the University of Lyons, France. 
i2mo. $1.00 net. 

LOYOLA and the Educational System of the Jesuits. By Thomas 
Hughes, S.J. i2mo. $1.00. 

FROEBEL and Education through Self Activity. By H. Court- 
hope Bowen, M.A., Late Lecturer on Education in the University of 
Cambridge. i2mo. $1.00 net. 

HERBART and the Herbartians. By Charles De Garmo, Ph.D., 

President of Swarthmore College. i2mo. $i.oonet. 

ROUSSEAU and Education according to Nature. By Thomas 

Davidson, M. A., LL.D. i2mo. $i.oonet. 

PESTALOZZI and the Modern Elementary School. By M. A 

PlNLOCHE, Professor in the University of Lille, France. 

l2mo. $1.00 net. 

The history of great educators is, from an important point of view, the 
history of education. These volumes are not only biographies, but concise 
yet comprehensive accounts of the leading movement in educational 
thought, and furnish a genetic account of educational history. Ancient edu- 
cation, the rise of the Christian schools, the foundation and growth of univer- 
sities, and the great modern movements suggested by the names, are 
adequately described and criticised. 

Copies, subject to the privilege of return, will be sent for examination to any 
Teacher upon receipt of the Net Price. 

The price paid for the sample copy will be returned, or a free copy inclosed. 
Upon receipt of an order for ten or more copies for Introduction. 

Correspondence is invited, and will be cheerfully answered. Catalogue seft 
firez. ^ 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 
163-157 Fifth Ave.. New York. 



MAR .26 1912 



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